OCSB  LfBRARV 


ON 

MARINE  MOTORS 


AND 


MOTOR  LAUNCHES 

A    HANDY    BOOK    FOR    YACHTSMEN 

BY 

E.   W.    ROBERTS,   M.  E. 

Author   of    "The   Gas   Engine    Handbook." 


NEW   YORK   AND   LONDON  : 
THE    RUDDER    PUBLISHING    COMPANY 

1901 


COPYRIGHT  1901 

BY 

E  .    W  .     ROBERTS,     M  .   E , 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED. 


PRKSS  OF 

THOMSON  &  CO., 
9  MURRAY  STREET,  N.  Y. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   I  PAGE 

PRINCIPLES  OF  OPERATION  -  -  9 

CHAPTER   II 
METHOD  OH  FUFL  SUPPLY       -  23 

CHAPTER    III 
OPERATION         -  -  27 

CHAPTER    IV 
ABOUT  GASOLINE  -     41 

CHAPTER   V 
CHOOSING  AN  ENGINE  57 

CHAPTER   VI 
IGNITERS  73 

CHAPTER   VII 

WEir.Ha-  IN  CAS  ENGINES  -  97 


UNIFORM    EDITIONS 


RUDDER^ON^tSERIES 

ON  YACHTS  AND  YACHT  HANDLING.  By 
Thomas  Fleming  Day.  Bound  in  blue  buckram  and 
gold,  32mo,  illustrated.  Price  fi. 

ON  MARINE  MOTORS  AND  MOTOR  LAUNCHES. 
By  K.  W.  Roberts,  M.  E.  Bound  in  blue  buckram 
and  gold,  32010,  illustrated.  Price  $i. 


RUDDER^JHOW-TO^SERIES 


HOW  TO   BUILD  A   SKIPJACK.     Reprint  from  THE 

RUDDEU.    B.und  in  blue   buckram   and  gold,  8vo, 

48pp,  illustrated.     Price  $i. 
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THE  RUDDER.     Bound  in  blue  buckram   and  gold, 

8vo,  <52pp,  illustrated.     Price  §1. 
HOW  TO  BUILD  A  MOTOR  LAUNCH.      By  Chas. 

D.    Mower.      Bound  in   blue   buckram   and  gold, 

8vo,  48pp,  illustra'ed.     Price  $i . 


PREFACE 

HpHE  gasoline  engine  for  marine  propulsion  is  fast  be- 
coming one  of  the  most  extensive  factors  in  power 
craft  of  small  sizes.  That  it  is  not  taking  hold  faster  is  be- 
cause it  is  not  understood  as  well  as  it  should  be  both  by 
the  builder  and  the  engine  runner.  While  there  are  quite  a 
number  of  very  good  engines,  there  are,  unfortunately, 
a  great  many  more  of  which  it  may  be  said  that,  while 
the  makers'  intentions  were  good,  the  results  have  not 
fulfilled  his  intentions.  The  steam  engine  has  so  long 
been  a  factor  in  our  life  that  it  has  ceased  to  be  looked 
upon  with  awe,  and  an}-  one  with  the  least  pretensions  to 
a  knowledge  of  engineering  understands  the  general  prin- 
ciples of  operation  of  the  older  motor.  While  the  gas 
engine  is  simple  and,  in  fact,  much  less  complicated  than 
the  steam  engine  in  so  far  as  its  mechanism  is  con- 
cerned, it  is  but  imperfectly  understood  even  by  many 
who  have  had  close  dealings  with  it  for  years.  Chving  to 
the  fact  that  a  gasoline  engine  is  self-contained  and  pro- 
duces the  propulsive  force  from  the  fuel  as  it  is  needed, 
the  derangement  of  any  function  is  very  likely  to  throw 


8 

the  entire  motor  out  of  working  order.  A  knowledge  of 
the  principles  of  operation  involved,  as  well  as  the  trou- 
bles that  are  likely  to  arise  and  where  to  look  for  the 
cause,  is  essential  to  the  runner.  Quite  frequently  the 
remedy  is  one  that  can  be  applied  immediately,  and  no 
inconvenience  will  result  from  the  derangement.  Should, 
however,  the  engine  runner  not  know  what  the  matter 
is  and  the  remedy  to  apply,  he  might  as  well  have  no 
engine.  It  was  to  help  the  engine  runner  that  the  present 
series  of  articles  now  appearing  in  book  form  were  written. 
The  author  trusts  that  the  hints  contained  in  this  small 
book  will  accomplish  the  object  he  has  had  in  view  in 
their  preparation,  i.  e.,  to  smooth  over  many  of  the  rough 
places  in  the  operation  of  a  marine  gasoline  engine. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  OPERATION. 

\\/HEN  selecting  a  gasoline  engine  for  driving  a  boat 
*  ™  there  are  a  number  of  considerations  to  be  dealt 
with,  but  all  of  them,  great  and  small,  subservient 
to  the  primary  consideration  of  reliability  of  oper- 
tion  at  all  times  and  under  the  most  trying  conditions.  It 
is  a  very  peculiar  thing  about  the  gasoline  engine  that  it  is 
expected  to  be  in  good  working  order  at  all  times  and 
that  it  must  never  break  down.  If  it  does,  the  owner  or 
operator,  as  the  case  may  be,  will  decry  the  gasoline  en- 
gine, its  builders  and  all  who  have  anything  to  do  with  it, 
in  language  that  is  probably  not  of  the  mildest  kind.  If 
a  steam  engine  breaks  down,  there  may  be  some  strong 
words  used  with  reference  to  the  maker,  but  as  a  rule 
nothing  is  said  against  the  steam  engine  as  a  prime 
mover,  for  the  simple  reason  that  we  are  accustomed  to 
its  vagaries  and  take  them  as  a  matter  of  course. 

\Yhile  much  more  is  usually  expected  of  the  gasoline 
engine  than  of  the  steam  engine,  the  previous  assertion 
is  none  the  less  true  that  reliability  of  operation  is  the 


10 

primary  consideration  and  by  all  means  the  most  impor- 
tant. Economy  of  fuel,  which  is  a  matter  of  first  impor- 
tance with  all  prime  movers  on  land,  becomes  a  second- 
ary requirement  as  far  as  the  marine  gasoline  engine  is 
concerned,  and  more  especially  when  these  engines  are  to 
be  used  for  small  powers  and  go  as  a  rule  under  the  care 
of  the  unskilled.  It  is  a  very  mistaken  notion  that  any- 
one, even  a  child,  can  operate  a  gasoline  engine.  True,  a 
child  will  get  on  very  well  after  being  taught,  and  until 
something  happens.  Then  comes  the  necessity  for  a  man 
with  reasoning  powers  that  are  well  developed  and  with 
a  clear  head.  All  kinds  of  things  may  happen  to  a  vessel, 
if  its  motive  power  gives  out.  What  these  are  it  is  scarce- 
ly necessary  to  explain  to  the  reader.  A  great  many 
things  may  happen  to  a  gasoline  engine  in  indifferent 
hands,  and  the  greater  portion  of  this  article  will  be  de- 
voted to  the  things  that  may  happen  and  what  to  do  in 
case  accidents  occur. 

Before  taking  up  the  matters  of  selection  and  care  of  a 
gasoline  ^ngine,  it  will  be  necessary  to  explain  briefly 
the  principles  of  operation  of  the  two  types  available  for 
marine  purposes.  These  types  are  the  four-cycle  engine, 
in  which  there  is  but  one  impulse  at  full  power  for  each 


two  revolutions  of  the  crankshaft,  and  the  two-cycle 
engine,  in  which  an  impulse  occurs  at  each  revolution  of 
the  crankshaft.  Of  the  two,  the  four-cycle  engine  is  that 
most  in  use  for  stationary  purposes,  but  in  marine  prac- 
tice the  two-cycle  engine  is  driving  the  other  very  hard. 
Although  not  generally  considered  as  economical  of  fuel 
as  the  four-cycle  engine,  it  can  be  built  much  lighter  for 
the  same  power,  and  the  great  frequency  of  the  impulses 
makes  it  much  steadier  in  operation.  This  can  perhaps 
be  realized  better  when  it  is  remembered  that  a  single 
cylinder  steam  engine  receives  an  impulse  at  every  stroke 
of  the  piston,  or  two  impulses  at  every  revolution  of  the 
crankshaft,  while  the  four-cycle  gasoline  engine  receives 
but  one  impulse  to  two  revolutions,  or  one  impulse  to 
four  in  the  steam  engine.  The  steam  engine  also  re- 
ceives two  impulses  during  the  same  time  that  the  two- 
cycle  engine  receives  one.  It  is  supposed,  of  course,  that 
both  the  steam  engine  and  the  gasoline  engine  are  run- 
ning at  the  same  speed.  Suppose  again  that  the  mean 
pressure  within  the  cylinders  of  each  class  of  motor 
(steam  and  gasoline)  are  the  same,  then  the  power  of  the 
steam  engine  for  the  same  cylinder  diameter,  and  the 
same  stroke  and  running  at  the  same  speed  would  be 


twice  that  of  the  two-cycle  engine  and  four  times  that  of 
the  four-cycle  engine. 

The  principles  of  operation  of  the  four-cycle  engine 
may  be  best  understood  by  reference  to  Fig.  i.  In  this 
figure  there  are  shown  four  operations  of  the  engine,  one 
operation  taking  place  during  one  stroke  of  the  piston. 
At  A  is  shown  the  first  operation  in  which  the  piston  P 
is  on  the  downward  stroke,  and  the  inlet  valve  is  open, 
allowing  an  explosive  mixture  of  gasoline  and  air  to  be 
drawn  into  the  cylinder  as  indicated  by  the  arrows.  Just 
as  the  piston  reaches  the  bottom  of  the  suction  stroke  the 
valve  is  closed,  and  upon  the  following  upward  stroke, 
shown  at  B,  the  mixture,  called  the  charge,  is  compressed 
into  a  space  at  the  end  of  the  cylinder  which  is  not  en- 
tered by  the  piston  and  the  volume  of  which  is  about  one- 
third  of  the  volume  displaced  by  the  piston  during  its 
stroke.  Thus  the  charge  is  compressed  into  a  volume 
equal  to  one-quarter  of  what  it  was  originally,  or  to  some- 
thing in  the  neighborhood  of  seventy-five  or  eighty 
pounds  to  the  square  inch.  Just  before  the  piston  reaches 
the  top  of  the  compression  stroke,  the  charge  is  ignited 
by  means  of  a  spark  passing  between  the  two  points  of 
the  igniter  I.  This  causes  a  sudden  rise  of  pressure  in 


FIG.  1 


FIG.  1 


the  cylinder,  which  will,  if  the  spark  occurs  at  the  proper 
time,  reach  a  maximum  value  just  at  the  end  of  the 
stroke.  The  piston  then  descends  as  shown  at  C,  and 
the  products  of  combustion  expand  until,  when  the  pis- 
ton has  reached  a  point  about  10  per  cent,  of  the  stroke 
from  the  bottom  of  the  stroke,  the  exhaust  valve  E  is 
opened  and  the  burnt  gases  escape  through  the  exhaust 
pipe  to  the  atmosphere,  being  driven  out  by  the  return  of 
the  piston  during  the  next  stroke  of  the  piston  as  shown 
at  D.  This  completes  the  cycle  or  series  of  operations, 
which  consists  of  the  four  operations  shown,  and  hence 
the  name  four-cycle,  which,  to  be  strictly  correct,  should 
be  called  four-part  cycle.  In  the  four-cycle  engine,  the 
exhaust  valve  E  is  invariably  opened  by  the  mechanism 
of  the  engine,  which  is  in  nearly  all  cases  a  cam  on  a  shaft 
called  the  cam — or  lay-shaft,  and  which  makes  one  revo- 
lution to  two  of  the  crankshaft.  Many  devices  have  been 
introduced  in  order  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  using  reduc- 
ing gears  for  operating  the  exhaust  valve,  but  the  majori- 
ty of  builders  use  either  a  pair  of  spur  gears,  a  pair  of 
bevel  gears,  or  a  pair  of  skew  or  helical  gears.  The  first 
and  third  of  these  are  the  ones  in  most  general  use.  The 
suction  valve  S  is  operated  either  by  a  cam  in  the  same 


i6 

manner  as  the  exhaust  valve  or  by  means  of  a  vacuum 
formed  within  the  engine  cylinder  upon  the  down  stroke 
of  the  piston. 

The  operation  of  the  two-cycle  engine  may  be  ex- 
plained by  means  of  the  diagrams  in  Fig.  2.  In  the  two- 
cycle  engine  the  same  general  principles  are  involved  as 
in  the  four-cycle  engine,  the  only  difference  being  that 
the  suction  and  the  exhaust  strokes  are  cut  out  in  a  very 
ingenious  manner.  In  the  two-cycle  engine  of  the  type 
mat  is  employed  so  extensively  in  small  marine  engines, 
the  crank  and  the  connecting  rod  are  enclosed  in  an  air- 
tight case  called  the  crank-case,  so  that  the  piston  is  al- 
ternately producing  suction  and  compression  in  the 
crank-case.  At  A  in  the  figure  the  piston  P  has  started 
upon  its  upward  stroke,  and  may  be  supposed  to  contain 
a  charge  of  gasoline  vapor  and  air.  The  charge  is  com- 
pressed and  ignited  near  the  top  of  the  stroke  as  in  the 
four-cycle  engine.  At  the  same  time  the  suction  caused 
by  the  upward  stroke  of  the  piston  is  drawing  a  fresh 
charge  into  the  crank-chamber  through  the  valve  S.  On 
the  following  downward  stroke  of  the  piston  the  burnt 
gases  are  expanded  and  the  fresh  charge  in  the  crank- 
ciiamber  is  compressed.  Just  before  the  piston  reaches 


FIG.  2 


FIG.  2 


19 

the  bottom  of  its  stroke,  it  passes  the  exhaust  port  E,  and 
the  products  of  combustion  escape  through  the  exhaust 
pipe  to  the  atmosphere.  Immediately  after  the  exhaust 
port  is  opened,  the  piston  passes  the  inlet  port  G  and  the 
fresh  charge  which  has  already  been  raised  to  a  pressure 
of  from  five  to  six  pounds  in  the  crank-case  rushes  into 
the  cylinder  and  is  deflected  by  the  plate  R  to  the  top, 
as  indicated  by  the  arrows,  and  drives  out  the  major  por- 
tion of  the  previous  charge.  The  cycle  is  then  repeated 
as  in  the  case  with  the  four-cycle  engine.  It  may  be  seen 
that  the  complete  series  of  operations  is  finished  in  two 
strokes  of  the  piston,  or  in  one  revolution  of  the  crank- 
shaft. The  name  two-cycle  is  derived  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  that  of  the  four-cycle  engine,  and  similarly  it  is  in 
reality  a  two-part  cycle. 

The  two-cycle  engine  is  growing  rapidly  in  favor  both 
with  the  yachtsman  and  the  manufacturer.  The  valve  S 
in  Fig.  2  is  operated  by  the  suction  of  the  piston  and  the 
only  mechanism  employed  is  a  reciprocating  rod  operated 
by  an  eccentric  to  drive  the  water  pump  and  the  igniter. 
Much  trouble  is  experienced  at  times  with  the  two-cycle 
engine  from  ignition  taking  place  in  the  crank-chamber, 
and  is  due  to  several  causes,  which  will  be  explained 


later.  It  often  happens  that,  in  a  poorly  proportioned 
engine,  a  portion  of  the  fresh  charge  will  escape  through 
the  exhaust  with  the  products  of  combustion.  One  of  the 
greatest  of  troubles  with  this  type  of  engine  is,  however, 
that  it  is  usually  the.  first  one  to  be  built  by  an  amateur, 
and  he  generally  makes  the  engine  so  out  of  proportion 
that  it  will  not  operate  successfully  under  very  favorable 
conditions.  The  author  has  frequently  run  across  cases 
of  this  kind,  and  he  has  one  in  mind  where  an  unfortunate 
designer  far  away  in  Manitoba  sent  the  author  a  photo- 
graph of  his  engine  with  a  mournful  appeal  to  tell  him 
why  it  would  not  run.  Unfortunately  the  photograph 
had  nothing  about  it  to  indicate  the  proportions  of  the 
engine,  and  it  was  of  course  impossible  to  suggest  a 
remedy  without  writing  the  inquirer  a  long  dissertation 
on  design. 

In  addition  to  the  features  of  the  engine  shown  by  the 
diagrams  there  is  usually  a  hollow  chamber  surrounding 
the  cylinder  through  which  water  is  caused  to  circulate 
by  means  of  a  pump,  in  order^to  prevent  overheating  of 
the  cylinder  and  the  piston,  although  in  some  small 
gasoline  engines  the  cooling  is  effected  by  means  of 
radiating  ribs  of  metal,  which  project  from  the  outside  of 


21 


the  piston.  This  device  works  very  well  with  engines 
having  cylinders  of  three  and  one-half  inches  diameter 
and  below,  if  there  is  abundant  access  of  air.  But  the 
fact  that  water  is  always  present  in  plenty  when  the 
engine  is  employed  for  marine  purposes  makes  this 
arrangement  appear  somewhat  unnecessary.  A  gasoline 
engine  will  often  stop  from  overheating  of  the  cylinder, 
and  a  plentiful  supply  of  water  is  at  all  times  a  certain 
preventive  of  this  trouble. 


CHAPTER  II. 

METHOD  OF   FUEL   SUPPLY. 

are  three  distinct  methods  of  supplying  gaso- 
line  to  the  engine,  the  principal  object  of  each  being 
to  furnish  gasoline  in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  be  in  a  fine- 
ly divided  state  and  well  mixed  with  the  air  at  the  time  ig- 
nition takes  place.  The  first  method  in  use  is  that  of 
passing  the  air  either  over  or  through  the  body  of  the 
fuel  in  order  that  it  may  take  up  a  portion,  charging  the 
air  with  gasoline  vapor.  This  is  called  the  carbureter 
system,  and  the  device  by  which  it  is  accomplished  is 
called  a  carbureter.  Only  a  portion  of  the  air  that  passes 
into  the  engine  cylinder  is  allowed  to  pass  through  the 
carbureter,  as  the  carbureted  air  is  usually  too  heavily 
charged  with  gasoline  to  be  explosive.  One  of  the  most 
successful  marine  gasoline  engines  in  use  employs  a 
carbureter,  but  the  system  has  the  objection  that  it  will 
take  up  only  the  lighter  -portions  of  the  fuel,  leaving  a 
heavy  residue  in  the  bottom  of  the  carbureter  that  is  use- 
less for  the  purposes  of  the  engine.  Warming  the  gaso- 
line by  passing  a  portion  of  either  the  exhaust  or  the  hot 


24 

jacket  water  through  a  pipe  which  in  turn  passes  through 
the  liquid  fuel  in  the  carbureter  will  usually  overcome 
this  difficulty  to  a  great  extent. 

The  vaporizer  system  is  one  in  which  the  air  passes 
by  a  small  opening  leading  to  a  reservoir  containing  a 
limited  quantity  of  gasoline  and  drawing  the  fuel  wil.li 
it  much  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  familiar  perfume 
atomizer,  or  a  valve  is  opened  by  the  action  of  the  air 
passing  into  the  engine,  allowing  a  small  quantity  of  the 
fuel  to  flow  into  the  path  of  the  entering  air.  In  fact  a 
vaporizer  may  be  defined  as  any  device  so  arranged  that 
the  air,  in  passing  by  an  opening,  carries  with  it  the 
requisite  amount  of  fuel. 

Jets  are  devised  by  which  gasoline  is  forced  into  the 
path  of  the  air  by  means  of  a  small  gasoline  pump,  no 
dependence  being  placed  upon  the  action  of  the  air  cur- 
rent. Of  the  three  methods  it  is  the  author's  experience 
that  the  last  gives  the  most  trouble  in  the  hands  of  the 
unskilled  operator.  I  have  seen  several  makes  of  gaso- 
line engines  which  operated  both  regularly  and  smoothly 
with  a  jet  feed,  but  as  soon  as  the  inexperienced  operator 
takes  them  in  hand  and  changes  the  adjustment,  as  he 
invariably  will,  the  trouble  commences.  Vaporizers  and 


carbureters  both  have  their  individual  troubles.  Carbu- 
reters will  quite  frequently  "freeze  up"  in  winter,  i.  e.,  the 
gasoline  will  get  so  cold  that  it  will  not  evaporate.  The 
effect  is  heightened  by  the  very  nature  of  the  process. 
The  action  of  the  evaporation  carries  off  heat  from 
the  liquid  and  rapidly  lowers  the  temperature  of  the  fuel, 
which  soon  becomes  too  cold  for  effective  working  ex- 
cept when  the  lost  heat  units  are  supplied  from  an  out- 
side source,  either  from  the  air  in  summer,  or  from  hot 
jacket- water  or  exhaust  gases  in  winter.  Vaporizers  are 
inclined  to  cause  trouble  from  the  fact  that  the  openings 
are  so  small  as  to  easily  become  clogged  by  any  foreign 
matter  that  may  find  its  way  into  the  gasoline.  For 
this  reason,  the  writer  advises  that  all  gasoline  should  be 
poured  into  the  tank  through  a  strainer.  If  a  fine  wire 
strainer  is  not  obtainable,  a  piece  of  muslin  will  answer 
the  purpose  very  well.  Keeping  gasoline  in  old  paint  or 
varnish  cans  is  especially  pernicious  in  its  effects,  as  the 
gasoline  will  dissolve  any  residuum  in  the  cans  and  is 
quite  inclined  to  deposit  it  in  the  small  passages  of 
the  vaporizer.  For  the  same  reason  the  tank  should  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  at  frequent  intervals,  and  precaution 
taken  to  prevent  foreign  matter  from  entering.  The  outlet 


26 

pipe  which  carries  the  fuel  to  the  engine  should  not  be 
taken  from  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  but  its  opening  should 
be  at  least  one-half  inch  above  the  bottom. 


'Tp 


CHAPTER  III. 

OPERATION. 

ROUBLES  with  gasoline  engines  are,  quite  frequently, 
the  outcome  of  the  operator's  carelessness  in  reading 
or  understanding  the  instructions  sent  out  by  the  builder. 
A  gasoline  engine  will  not  run  on  pure  gasoline  or  vapor 
nor  with  igniter  so  set  that  it  ignites  the  charge  halfway 
down  the  expansion  stroke.  These  remarks  may  appear 
unnecessary  to  the  experienced  operator,  yet  it  is  a  fact 
that  I  was  once  called  upon  to  examine  an  engine  in 
which  both  these  thing's  were  done.  To  the  reader  who 
has  had  no  experience  in  the  operating  of  gasoline  en- 
gines, I  would  say,  always  read  the  instruction  book 
carefully  and  follow  the  instructions  to  the  letter.  Bear 
in  mind  that  the  builder  is  quite  certain  to  know  more 
about  the  engine  than  you  do  yourself.  Because  you  are 
a  good  steam  engineer  is  no  reason  that  you  should  be 
able  to  operate  a  gasoline  engine  successfully  from  the 
start.  It  is  quite  likely  to  increase  your  confusion. 

When  starting  a  gasoline  engine,  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  have  in  mind  a  certain  routine  of  the  necessary  opera- 


28 

tions  and  to  follow  this  routine  every  time  in  order  that 
nothing  may  be  omitted.  First  fill  the  charging  cup, 
which  will  be  found  attached  to  the  cylinder  of  nearly  all 
gasoline  engines.  The  amount  of  gasoline  to  use  for  this 
purpose  will  usually  be  noted  in  the  instruction  book  sent 
with  the  engine.  Allow  the  contents  of  the  cup  to  flow 
into  the  cylinder,  and  then  close  the  valve  between  the 
cup  and  the  engine.  It  is  well  to  note  at  this  point  that 
more  gasoline  is  required  for  this  purpose  when  the 
cylinder  is  cold  than  when  it  is  warm,  and  the  proper 
quantity  for  each  case  may  be  determined  best  by  ex- 
periment. The  gasoline  should  be  given  a  short  time 
to  evaporate,  and,  in  the  meantime,  other  things  may  be 
attended  to.  All  valves  between  the  engine  and  the  gaso- 
line tank  should  now  be  opened  and  the  oil  cups  filled. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  fill  the  oil  cups  every  time  you  start 
upon  a  trip,  no  matter  if  they  are  nearly  full  already. 
Carefully  examine  the  ignition  device  to  see  that  it  is  in 
good  working  order.  This  may  be  done,  with  an  electric 
igniter,  by  touching  the  two  ends  of  the  wires  together 
and  seeing  if  a  good  "fat"  spark  results.  Then  press  the 
movable  electrode  against  the  stationary  one  and  deter- 
mine if  there  is  a  circuit  by  holding  one  wire  in  place  and 


29 

wiping  the  other  on  its  binding  post.  If  a  flash  results, 
there  is  no  obstruction  to  the  circuit.  If  it  is  suspected 
that  the  ignition  mechanism  is  not  working  properly,  the 
above  operations  should  be  repeated  when  the  engine  has 
been  turned  over  until  the  igniter  is  just  about  to  snap 
and  again  after  the  "snapping"  has  taken  place.  If  there 
is  a  charge  of  gasoline  in  the  cylinder,  be  careful  to  keep 
one  of  the  wires  away  from  its  binding  post  when  the 
igniter  is  in  operation.  No  flash  should  occur  after  the 
igniter  has  "snapped." 

To  start  the  engine,  the  relief  cock  should  be  opened, 
and,  if  there  is  a  device  for  delaying  the  action  of  the 
igniter,  the  lever  for  that  purpose  should  be  moved  to 
the  position  for  starting  the  engine.  The  gasoline  valve 
should  then  be  opened,  but  only  about  one-half  the  dis- 
tance it  should  be  when  the  engine  is  running  at  full 
speed,  or  else  the  charge  will  be  too  rich.  Turn  the  en- 
gine over  by  means  of  the  starting  crank  until  one  or 
more  explosions  take  place,  and  the  engine  will  go  of  it- 
self. As  the  engine  gets  up  to  speed,  open  the  gasoline 
valve  cautiously,  and,  should  the  engine  show  signs  of 
slowing  down,  lessen  the  opening  of  the  gasoline  valve 
until  it  starts  off  again.  When  the  engine  is  well  under 


3° 

way,  look  to  the  water  circulation  and  so  adjust  the  water 
valves  that  after  the  engine  has  been  running  for  about 
,  fifteen  minutes  the  exit  water  will  be  about  as  hot  as  can 
be  borne  comfortably  by  the  hand.  If  for  any  reason  the 
water  circulation  has  been  neglected  and  the  engine  runs 
hot,  the  water  should  be  turned  on  with  great  caution,  as 
too  sudden  cooling  of  the  cylinder  may  cause  it  to  con- 
tract so  rapidly  as  to  bind  the  piston. 

Numerous  difficulties  are  frequently  encountered  by 
the  inexperienced  gasoline  engine  operator.  If  the  en- 
gine runs  too  hot  from  defective  circulation  within  the 
water  jacket  it  may  shut  down  altogether.  Should  the 
ignition  battery  be  weak,  the  engine  will  start  very  well, 
but  it  will  soon  begin  missing  explosions,  and  the  misfires 
will  gradually  increase  until  it  fails  entirely  to  ignite. 
Explosions  in  the  crank-chamber  of  a  two-cycle  engine 
are  the  result  of  either  too  weak  a  mixture  or  of  leaks  in 
the  crank-chamber,  which  lessen  the  compression.  Pre- 
mature ignitions,  those  that  take  place  too  soon  and  cause 
a  severe  shock  in  the  cylinder,  are  the  bctc  noir  of  the  gas 
engineer.  Aside  from  an  improperly  adjusted  igniter, 
they  can  usually  be  traced  to  some  projection  within  the 
compression  space  which  reaches  a  temperature  so  high 


as  to  act  in  the  same  manner  as  a  hot  tube  and  ignite  the 
charge  before  the  proper  point  in  the  stroke.  Disconnect 
one  of  the  igniter  wires  or  open  the  switch,  if  there  be 
one,  and  should  the  engine  continue  to  run  with  the  cur- 
rent cut  off,  there  is  a  hot  point  in  the  compression  space. 
Projections  upon  the  end  of  the  piston  or  at  any  point 
within  the  cylinder  are  inclined  to  gather  carbon,  which 
may  form  in  the  shape  of  a  cone  or  a  thin  flake  and  be- 
come highly  heated  after  the  engine  has.  been  running  a 
short  time.  Even  the  igniter  points  have  been  known  to 
act  in  this  manner.  Compression  raises  the  temperature 
of  the  charge,  and  if  the  compression  is  too  high  it  may 
of  itself  cause  the  ignition  of  the  mixture.  If  the  trouble 
can  be  traced  to  no  other  cause,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  re- 
duce the  compression,  or,  in  case  the  air  is  heated  before 
it  enters  the  cylinder,  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  the 
entering  air  by  leading  a  portion  of  it  around  the  heater. 
Much  trouble  in  the  operation  of  both  gas  and  gaso- 
line engines  is  due  to  the  use  of  a  cylinder  oil  that  is  not 
adapted  to  the  purpose.  Too  heavy  an  oil  will  carbon- 
ize in  the  cylinder  and  deposit  carbon  to  the  detriment  of 
the  operation  of  the  engine.  This  is  especially  true  of 
oils  in  which  a  portion  of  the  mixture  is  of  direct  animal 


32 

origin.  There  is  an  oil  which  has  been  placed  upon  the 
market  and  advertised  as  made  expressly  for  gas  engines 
which  has  caused  untold  trouble  to  the  users.  This  oil 
will  give  good  satisfaction  as  long  as  the  engine  is  run 
with  a  comparatively  hot  cylinder,  and  will  probably 
cause  but  little  trouble  when  used  on  marine  engines.  It 
has  proven  inadequate  to  the  task  when  employed  in  en- 
closed crank-chambers,  as  it  is  apt  to  cake  and  thus  to  lose 
its  lubricating  properties.  My  advice  to  the  gas  engine 
runner  is  to  invariably  use  the  oil  recommended  by  the 
maker  of  his  engine,  or  else  to  look  out  for  trouble.  If  at 
any  time  it  is  found  that  the  piston  rings  are  rusted  fast 
in  the  grooves  it  is  a  sign  that  an  improper  oil  has  been" 
employed.  An  unusual  deposit  of  carbon  in  the  cylinder 
or  in  the  exhaust  passages  is  also  an  indication  of  an  im- 
perfect oil,  and  this  result  may  be  traced  to  oils  of  too 
great  specific  gravity  or  to  those  which  have  a  proportion 
of  animal  oils. 

Explosions  in  the  exhaust  passages  may  generally  be 
traced  to  misfires,  and  they  sometimes  occur  from  a  leaky 
exhaust  valve,  the  direct  cause  of  the  trouble  being,  of 
course,  the  presence  of  an  explosive  mixture  in  the  pas- 
sages. At  the  first  sign  of  a  leaky  valve,  especially  when 


33 

it  is  the  exhaust  valve,  there  should  be  no  delay  in  re- 
grinding  it  to  its  seat.  Neglect  of  this  matter  will  result 
in  a  rapid  increase  of  the  leak,  until  the  valve  soon  be- 
comes useless  and  has  to  be  replaced.  Exhaust  valve 
stems  should  be  lubricated  with  kerosene  only,  as  the  use 
of  the  heavier  oils  will  cause  a  deposit  that  will  result  in 
the  valve  sticking.  All  packing  for  gasoline  valve  stems 
and  similar  joints  should  be  lubricated  with  soap.  Every 
portion  of  the  gasoline  attachments  should  be  cleaned 
at  frequent  intervals,  a  good  cleansing  compound  being 
a  strong  suds  made  with  warm  water.  After  cleaning, 
the  parts  should  be  rinsed  in  gasoline. 

A  part  of  the  gasoline  engine  that  is  apt  to  be  neglected 
is  the  water  jacket.  It  should  be  cleaned  occasionally 
and  all  solid  matter  removed.  The  easiest  way  to  do  this 
is,  perhaps,  with  a  stream  of  water  from  the  nozzle  of  a 
hose.  If  no  hose  is  at  hand,  or  if  the  deposit  is  too  hard, 
it  should  be  dug  out  with  a  hook  similar  to  a  poker,  or  to 
one  of  the  little  hoes  used  for  cleaning  stoves. 

If  trouble  is  experienced  in  starting  a  gasoline  engine 
in  cold  weather,  it  may  be  heated  by  filling  the  water 
jacket  with  boiling  water.  A  hot  brick  or  a  hot  stone 
may  also  be  laid  on  the  vaporizer  or  the  carbureter.  Fail- 


34 

ure  to  start  in  any  weather  may  be  due  to  any  one  of 
many  different  causes.  The  current  may  not  pass  through 
the  igniter,  as  the  igniter  may  be  corroded  or  be  put  out 
of  order  in  other  ways.  The  mixture  may  be  too  rich  in 
fuel,  or  too  weak.  The  gasoline  may  have  been  forgot- 
ten and  the  valves  not  turned  on.  The  gasoline  supply 
pipe  or  the  valves  may  be  clogged  up.  The  igniter  may 
not  be  set  properly. 

Pounding  may  result  from  premature  explosions,  from 
an  excessively  rich  mixture,  or  from  a  loose  bearing. 
Swinging  the  fly-wheel  back  and  forth  through  a  short 
arc  will  show  a  loose  bearing,  and  premature  ignition 
will  usually  be  indicated  by  the  violence  of  the  knock.  If 
it  is  found  that  the  pounding  ceases  upon  cutting  off  the 
igniter  and  that  the  bearings  are  in  good  adjustment,  the 
pounding  is  probably  due  to  an  excessively  rich  mixture. 
Explosions  in  the  crank  chamber  of  a  two-cycle  engine 
are  also  productive  of  pounding.  An  engine  having  an 
imperfect  vaporizer  will  also  give  similar  results,  but  the 
jar  will  vary  in  strength,  and  upon  some  cycles  be  absent 
altogether.  It  is  well  to  avoid  a  vaporizer  that  is  not 
controlled  automatically,  and  which  supplies  the  fuel  in 
proportion  to  the  arnount  of  air  taken  into  the  cylinder 


35 

irrespective  of  hand  regulation.  This  is  one  of  the  ob- 
jections to  the  jet,  and  it  will  occur  with  devices  in  which 
the  gasoline  feed  is  opened  wide  at  every  stroke  of  the 
engine,  and  the  amount  of  gasoline  taken  into  the  cylin- 
der is  not  dependent  upon  the  amount  of  air  that  enters. 
There  are  other  features  about  a  gas  engine  that  may 
cause  trouble.  A  leaky  valve  may  be  caused  by  the  spring 
being  a  weak  one,  so  that  it  does  not  seat  properly.  A 
weak  spark  may  be  due  to  a  short  circuit  or  a  leak  in  the 
spark  coil.  It  is  well  to  always  keep  the  spark  coil  in  as 
dry  a  place  as  possible,  and  if  necessary  to  place  it  in  a 
water-tight  box.  The  engine  may  lose  in  power  from 
a  leak  in  the  cylinder  or  past  the  piston,  so  that  it  does 
not  hold  its  compression.  Leaky  pistons  are  usually  in- 
dicated by  smoke  issuing  from  the  open  end  of  the  cylin- 
der. The  state  of  the  mixture  may  be  quite  readily  de- 
termined while  the  engine  is  running  by  the  color  of  the 
flame  which  appears  at  the  priming  cup  if  it  is  open  at  the 
time  of  an  explosion.  The  most  perfect  combustion  is 
indicated  by  a  flame  of  a  deep  purple  color,  while  a  mix- 
ture that  is  too  rich  in  fuel  is  indicated  by  a  flame  that  is 
tinged  with  orange  or  yellow,  and  a  mixture  poor  in  fuel 
is  shown  by  the  flame  being  a  pale  blue.  This  is  also  a 


36 

very  good  way  to  determine  the  manner  in  which  the 
vaporizer  is  working.  If  the  vaporizer  is  giving  mixtures 
of  the  same  proportion  at  every  stroke  of  the  engine,  the 
color  of  the  flame  will  be  the  same  at  each  explosion ; 
but  should  the  vaporizer  be  working  unevenly,  the  flame 
shows  it  at  once  by  changing  color  from  time  to  time. 
This  is  a  simple  way  to  determine  if  the  engine  is  pound- 
ing because  of  too  rich  a  mixture.  Misfires  may  some- 
times occur  because  the  igniter  is  so  situated  that  it  is  in 
a  pocket  which  is  rilled  with  the  burnt  products  of  com- 
bustion left  from  a  previous  charge  and  which  have  not 
time  to  escape.  About  as  good  a  place  for  the  igniter  as 
can  be  found  is  in  the  direct  path  of  the  entering  charge, 
as  it  is  then  subject  to  the  cooling  effect  of  the  air  and  is 
always  located  in  fresh  mixture. 

There  is  but  one  engine  in  the  market  that  is  fitted 
to  reverse  at  full  speed,  all  others  being  designed  to  run 
in  one  direction  only,  and  in  order  that  the  direction  of 
motion  may  be  changed  from  ahead  to  astern  it  is  neces- 
sary to  supply  some  device  for  this  purpose  which  is  in- 
dependent of  the  engine.  To  supply  the  demand  for  such 
a  device  there  has  been  designed  the  reversible  propeller. 
In  this  propeller  the  blades  are  arranged  to  rotate  about  a 


37 

line  drawn  through  the  root  of  the  blade  through 
the  tip,  and  through  an  angle  of  ninety  degrees. 
The  blade  is  thus  changed  from  a  left  hand  to  a  right- 
hand  screw,  or  from  a  right-hand  to  a  left-hand  screw,  as 
the  case  may  be.  Again,  there  is  the  solid  propeller  of 
the  type  so  familiar  to  the  steam  engineer,  and  this  is  so 
arranged  that  its  shaft  may  be  reversed  independently  of 
the  engine.  This  is  accomplished  in  a  number  of  differ- 
ent ways,  with  the  aid  of  various  combinations  of  friction 
clutches  and  gears  too  numerous  to  mention.  Either 
system  has  advantages  peculiar  to  itself,  as  well  as  advan- 
tages which  are  not  found  in  the  other.  The  reversible 
propeller  takes  up  less  room  on  board  the  boat,  but  the 
principal  parts  of  the  operating  mechanism  are  on  the 
outside  and  hard  to  reach  when  there  is  a  necessity  for 
their  adjustment  and  repair.  Again  the  reversible  pro- 
peller is  a  hard  thing  to  throw  weeds  off  of  for  the 
reason  that  the  direction  of  rotation  is  never  reversed. 
The  mechanism  of  the  reversing  clutch  is  on  the  inside 
of  the  boat  and  takes  up  considerable  room,  but  it  has 
the  advantage  of  being  easy  to  get  at  in  case  of  trouble, 
and  also  the  direction  of  the  propeller  shaft  may  be 
reversed  in  order  to  clear  it  of  weeds.  It  is  the  general 


33 

custom  among  gasoline  engine  builders  to  supply  rever- 
sible wheels  with  small  craft  and  on  engines  of  six  or 
eight  horse-power  and  less,  and  reversible  clutches  on 
engines  of  larger  sizes.  It  is  a  very  poor  plan  to  depend 
upon  stopping  the  engine  and  starting  it  again  in  the 
opposite  direction,  as  the  ability  to  reverse  quickly  is 
practically  a  necessary  feature,  particularly  when  the  boat 
is  to  be  used  in  a  crowded  water  way. 

It  is  a  good  plan  when  selecting  a  gasoline  engine  for 
a  boat  to  see  another  of  the  same  make  you  propose  buy- 
ing at  work  in  another  boat.  Find  out  if  possible  from  the 
owner  if  he  has  had  much  trouble  with  it,  and  if  he  has 
had  a  great  deal  of  trouble  look  around  a  little  more 
before  you  purchase.  Don't  buy  anything  just  because  it 
will  run,  as  you  may  get  a  poor  engine,  of  which  there 
are  unfortunately  quite  a  number  on  the  market.  If 
you  wish  to  make  a  long  cruise  and  need  an  economical 
engine,  purchase  a  four-cycle.  Get  a  two  or  three  cylin- 
der if  you  can  afford  to  pay  the  difference  in  price.  And 
if  you  can  do  so  conveniently,  and  without  too  great 
an  outlay,  have  an  expert  from  the  factory  teach  you 
how  to  run  the  engine. 

A  gasoline  engine  is  an  ideal  power  for  pleasure  craft, 


39 

especially  when  the  operator  desires  to  be  his  own  en- 
gineer. You  can  enter  the  boat  wearing  a  spotless  white 
duck  suit,  run  the  engine  all  day,  and  leave  the  boat  at 
night  with  the  suit  as  clean  as  when  you  went  aboard  in 
the  morning.  There  is  no  smoke,  soot,  or  heat,  and  no 
hard  work.  There  is  no  delay  in  getting  started,  as  the 
engine  is  always  as  ready  to  run  as  a  steam  engine  with 
full  pressure  up  in  the  boiler  at  all  times.  There  is  no 
waste  of  fuel  when  standing  idle,  and  in  contrast  to  the 
electric  launch,  you  are  dependent  only  on  your  supply 
of  gasoline,  which  can  be  replenished  anywhere  at  a 
tritling  cost. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

•ABOUT  GASOLINE. 

fjASOLINE,  also  called  naphtha,  is  a  by-product  in  the 
^-*  manufacture  of  kerosene  oil  from  crude  petroleum. 
The  term  naphtha,  while  not  altogether  erroneous,  is  some- 
what misleading,  as,  strictly  speaking,  it  is  a  term  synon- 
ymous with  petroleum. 

Gasoline  is  the  name  usually  applied  to  a  by-product 
in  the  manufacture  of  kerosene  which  has  a  specific 
gravity  midway  between  that  of  the  heavier  kerosene 
and  the  lighter  benzine.  It  is  classified  by  the  petroleum 
trade  as  A  naphtha,  B  naphtha,  and  C  naphtha,  C  naphtha 
being  the  lightest  of  the  three. 

Petroleum,  and  of  course  all  of  its  derivatives,  belong 
to  that  large  family  of  chemical  compounds  known  as 
hydrocarbons.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  two  ele- 
ments, hydrogen  and  carbon,  of  which  all  hydrocarbons 
consist.  These  two  constituents  form  chemical  unions 
in  different  proportions  and  at  ordinary  temperatures 
they  exist  in  the  forms  of  gases,  liquids  and  solids,  rang- 
ing from  the  constituents  of  the  familiar  illuminating 


42 

gases,  through  the  ethers,  benzine,  gasoline,  kerosene, 
light  and  heavy  machinery  oils,  vaseline,  paraffine  wax, 
tar  and  coke. 

Each  variation  in  the  proportion  of  the  two  elements 
forms  a  different  substance  from  its  fellows,  and  quite 
frequently  hydrocarbons  are  found  on  which  the  propor- 
tions of  the  constituents  are  precisely  the  same,  but  in 
properties  of  which  they  are  entirly  different. 

The  origin  of  petroleum  has  been  attributed  to  various 
sources,  but  the  latest  investigations  point  to  an  un- 
doubtable  animal  origin.  During  prehistoric  times,  large 
numbers  of  animals,  principally  the  inhabitants  of  the 
sea,  were  buried  by  convulsions  of  the  earth.  The  fleshy 
portions  of  the  dead  animals  not  being  exposed  to  the 
air,  underwent  a  transformation  into  petroleum,  while  the 
bones  and  the  shells  were  transformed  into  stone.  The 
name  "coal  oil"  is  therefore  a  misnomer,  for  although 
hydrocarbons  similar  to  the  petroleum  derivatives  have 
been  artificially  produced  from  coal,  there  is  no  evidence 
to  support  a  theory  of  vegetable  origin  for  petroleum. 

So  much  for  science.  The  origin  and  properties  of 
petroleum  are  most  interesting  to  the  student,  but  to  the 
operator  of  a  gasoline  launch  a  knowledge  of  the  proper- 


*'  *>i 

y«    i\ 

i!           ' 

i 

n 

'    i 

i« 

Ji    • 

111* 

J  0 

'  ''  J  . 

j; 

vi 
°* 

:  f      C  : 

;      ! 

«   ' 
•  0 

ft 

*i    ! 

3    h     V 

W  '    i      .1 

45 

ties  of  gasoline  are  of  the  greatest  importance.  I  dare 
say  that  nine  out  of  ten  people  would  take  to  their  heels 
if  it  were  proposed  to  pour  a  stream  of  gasoline  into  a  fire 
from  an  ordinary  oil  can  in  their  presence.  The  same 
persons  would  undoubtedly  run  if  a  lighted  match  were 
thrown  into  an  open  can  of  gasoline.  Yet  either  may  be 
done  with  impunity,  for  the  expected  explosion  would 
not  occur. 

For  instance,  the  top  may  be  removed  from  the  can, 
Fig.  i,  and  a  lighted  match  held  near  the  opening,  and 
unless  the  can  has  been  quite  recently  filled  no  explosion 
will  occur.  The  gasoline  vapor  will  burn  at  the  opening 
in  a  manner  similar  to  gas  issuing  from  the  gas  pipe. 
The  reason  no  explosion  follows  this  seemingly  foolish 
action  of  holding  a  match  to  the  opening  is  that  there 
is  not  sufficient  air  mixed  in  the  gasoline  at  the  top  01 
the  can  to  form  an  explosive  mixture. 

Gasoline  evaporates  quite  rapidly  at  ordinary  tempe- 
ratures, and  shortly  after  the  can  has  been  filled  the 
vapor  has  driven  practically  all  air  from  the  top  of  the 
can.  Gasoline  cans  will  explode  after  they  have  been 
filled  for  some  time,  but  only  under  the  following  cir- 
cumstances: 


46 

A  gasoline  can  which  has  no  vent  and  is  exposed  to  a 
temperature  considerably  higher  than  that  at  which  the 
gasoline  will  evaporate,  will  explode  from  a  rise  of  pres- 
sure due  to  the  transformation  of  the. liquid  into  vapor. 
Contrary  to  the  popular  opinion,  an  explosion  of  this 
nature  is  not  necessarily  followed  by  a  conflagration.  In 
fact  the  writer  can  call  to  mind  a  case  in  which  a  can  of 
benzine  exploded  in  a  building  and  the  benzine  did  not 
-atch  fire,  because  neither  the  liquid  nor  the  vapor  was 
exposed  to  a  flame. 

The  state  of  affairs  in  a  gasoline  can  or  reservoir 
shortly  after  being  filled  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  2.  In  the 
figure  gasoline  vapor  is  represented  by  circles  arid  air 
by  crosses.  The  relative  proportions  of  air  and  gasoline 
vapor  in  any  portion  of  the  reservoir  is  indicated  by  the 
relative  number  of  crosses  and  circles.  The  figure  shows 
that  near  the  surface  of  the  liquid  there  is  nothing  but 
vapor,  while  near  the  top  of  the  reservoir  the  proportions 
of  air  to  vapor  is  about  4  to  I.  The  time  which  would 
elapse  before  the  condition  of  affairs  shown  in  the  figure 
would  exist  depends  upon  several  conditions. 

These  conditions  are,  the  specific  gravity  of  the  gas- 
oline, the  proportion  of  the  surface  exposed  to  the  vol- 


47 

time  by  the  space  above  the  liquid  and  the  temperature 
of  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  But  within  a  very  short 
time  after  filling  the  tank  such  a  condition  exists,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  2,  and  gradually  the  air  is  entirely  dis- 
placed by  gasoline  vapor.  Gasoline  vapor  alone,  and 
even  when  mixed  with  air  in  the  proportion  of  four  or 
five  volumes  of  air  to  one  of  vapor  is  not  explosive.  The 
slow  evaporation  of  the  heavier  hydrocarbon  kerosene 
permits  an  explosive  mixture  to  remain  above  the  liquid 
in  a  kerosene  reservor  much  longer  than  in  the  case  ot 
gasoline.  In  fact  there  is  much  less  danger  of  a  reservoir 
of  gasoline  exploding  from  the  application  of  a  flame  at 
an  opening  than  if  the  reservoir  contained  kerosene. 
This  is  strictly  true  notwithstanding  the  popular  opinion 
to  the  contrary. 

It  is  the  well-known  volatile  property  of  gasoline 
which  is  the  foundation  of  the  popular  belief  in  its  dan- 
gerous properties,  that  is  in  reality  the  basis  of  its  safe- 
ty under  the  circumstances  already  discussed.  In  fact, 
the  more  volatile  a  product  of  petroleum  the  less  is  the 
danger  of  an  explosion  coming  from  the  application  of  a 
flame  to  the  opening  of  a  reservoir  which  contains  it. 

Apropos  of  the  present  discussion  may  be  mentioned 


another  popular  fallacy,  one  which  has  afforded  much 
amusement  to  those  who  know  better.  It  is  generally 
supposed  that  if  a  flame  be  applied  to  the  open  neck  of 
a  balloon,  a  violent  explosion  will  follow.  Balloons  have 
caught  fire,  but  no  explosion  has  ever  followed  such  an 
occurrence,  because  there  was  not  sufficient  air  mixed 
with  gas  to  cause  an  explosion.  If  the  balloon  should 
contain  an  explosive  mixture  of  gas  and  air  its  buoy- 
ancy would  be  destroyed.  Balloons  have  exploded,  bitf 
no  fire  has  followed.  A  balloon  explosion  is  caused  by 
tying  up  the  neck  of  a  gas  bag  and  ascending  to  a  high 
altitude.  The  gas  expands  owing  to  the  reduced  pres- 
sure of  the  surrounding  atmosphere  and  the  internal 
pressure  becomes  so  great  as  to  rend  the  fabric. 

Returning  to  the  subject  of  gasoline,  take  the  res- 
ervoir shown  in  Fig.  I,  and  light  the  vapor  at  the  open- 
ing. From  an  ordinary  spout  oil  can  filled  with  gaso- 
line a  stream  of  the  liquid  may  be  poured  into  the  open- 
ing in  the  reservoir  directly  through  the  flame  into  the 
reservoir,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3,  and  without  an  explosion 
occurring.  The  flame  will  mount  the  stream,  but  will 
not  enter  the  can.  Stop  pouring  and  a  tiny  flame  will 
remain  at  the  end  of  the  spout.  This  may  be  extin- 


49 

guished  with  a  light  tap  of  the  finger,  and  the  flame  at 
the  reservoir  opening  may  be  put  out  by  a  light  tap  of 
the  palm  of  the  hand. 

To  avoid  an  explosion  from  expansion  due  to  over- 
heating, even7  gasoline  reservoir  should  have  a  vent,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  2  at  H,  or  be  provided  with  a  safety  valve. 
A  simple  form  of  such  a  valve  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  4. 
This  valve  consists  of  a  leather  washer  W — do  not  use 
rubber — which  is  attached  to  an  arm  L  pivoted  at 
P.  The  valve  may  be  weighted  if  desired,  provided  the 
reservoir  is  strong  enough  to  stand  some  pressure.  In- 
stead of  a  lever  a  spring  may  be  used,  which  is  held 
under  compression,  but  the  lever  arrangement  is  un- 
doubtedly better,  for  the  reason  that  a  sudden  overheat- 
ing or  a  possible  explosion,  due  to  a  mixture  of  air  with 
the  gasoline  vapor  on  top  of  the  reservoir,  will  blow  the 
valve  so  far  off  its  seat  as  to  leave  the  reservoir  open 
and  give  a  free  exit  for  the  rush  of  gas. 

For  the  reason  that  a  gasoline  tank  is  liable  to  ex- 
plode from  overheating  it  is  best  to  place  the  tank  under 
ground,  or  at  least  in  the  shade  of  a  properly  constructed 
shed.  When  the  gasoline  tank  is  placed  upon  a  boat  a 
corresponding  precaution  should  be  taken  and  a  space 


5° 

should  be  left  between  the  deck  upon  the  top  of  the  tank 
and  means  afforded  for  free  ventilation  of  such  a  space. 
The  vent  in  the  tank  should  communicate  to  the  outside 
of  the  vessel,  and  suitable  precaution  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  the  vapor  into  the  space  about  the 
tank. 

Owing  to  the  explosive  properties  of  a  mixture  of  gas- 
oline vapor  and  air  when  confined,  every  precaution 
should  be  taken  to  prevent  either  the  liquid  gasoline 
or  its  vapor  from  escaping  into  any  enclosed  portion 
of  the  boat.  Leaks  from  any  portion  of  the  gasoline  sup- 
ply system  should  be  effectualy  stopped  as  soon  as  dis- 
covered. A  partial  stoppage  of  the  leak  is  as  bad  as 
none,  and  it  by  no  means  avoids  the  presence  of  dan- 
ger. A  forcible  example  of  the  danger  of  a  leak  into 
the  enclosed  portions  of  the  vessel  is  a  lamentable  acci- 
dent which 'Occurred  to  a  gasoline  launch  on  Long  Island 
Sound. 

The  danger  that  arises  from  leaks  in  the  gasoline 
supply  pipe  may  to  a  great  extent  be  avoided  by  using  an 
extra  pipe  surrounding  that  through  which  the  gasoline 
flows  to  the  engine.  This  is  a  wise  precaution  at  all  times 
and  one  that  is  taken  by  a  great  many  gasoline  launch 


builders.  If  every  portion  of  a  gasoline  launch  into 
which  the  vapor  might  escape  were  to  be  thoroughly 
ventilated,  a  large  percentage  of  the  danger  would  be 
eliminated. 

The  writer  remembers  a  disastrous  explosion  which 
occurred  on  one  of  the  small  lakes  in  Northwestern  New 
York  some  six  years  ago.  In  this  case  the  engine, 
although  it  used  gasoline  as  a  fuel,  was  not  a  gas  engine. 
A  leak  in  the  gasoline  supply  system  permitted  the  liquid 
to  flow  into  the  engine  room  which  was  enclosed,  and  the 
vapor  that  accumulated  formed  an  explosive  mixture 
with  the  air  in  the  cabin.  This  mixture  took  fire  from  a 
torch  and  exploded,  tearing  the  upper  works  of  the  boat 
to  pieces,  injuring  the  owner  and  crippling  the  engineer 
for  life. 

In  the  face  of  the  facts  already  stated,  it  would  seem 
advisable  to  always  put  a  gasoline  engine  in  an  open  part 
of  the  boat.  But  if  precautions  are  taken  never  to  enter 
the  engine  room  with  a  light  after  it  has  been  unoccu- 
pied for  some  time,  especially  if  it  has  been  kept  closed, 
and  to  keep  the  engine  room  thoroughly  ventilated  at 
all  times,  there  will  be  very  little  danger  of  an  explosion 
of  this  nature.  Cleanliness  in  the  engine  room  and  the 


52 

avoidance  of  leaks  by  proper  care,  such  as  an  experienced 
engineer  would  ordinarily  take,  would  avoid  much  of  the 
trouble  from  this  source. 

As  in  a  gasoline  launch  the  greatest  danger  is  from 
leaks  and  the  only  way  in  which  an  explosion  could 
occur  would  be  from  a  leak  into  an  enclosed  portion  of 
the  boat  or  from  the  explosion  of  the  gasoline  tank 
shortly  after  it  has  been  partially  filled,  there  is  not  so 
very  much  to  look  after  in  order  to  avoid  danger.  An 
explosion  seldom  if  ever  occurs  from  the  latter  cause ; 
thus  it  will  be  seen  that  leaks  are  the  principle  thing  to 
look  after.  In  an  engine  which  uses  electric  ignition 
there  is  no  danger  of  an  explosion  even  should  a  leak 
occur,  unless  someone  lights  a  match  in  the  boat  or  a 
naked  flame  is  present.  Therefore,  should  a  leak  occur, 
those  in  the  boat  should  not  light  matches,  although 
there  is  no  danger  of  igniting  gasoline  or  its  vapor  from 
an  ember  like  that  of  a  burning  cigar. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  with  proper  precaution  the 
dangers  of  an  explosion  or  its  disastrous  consequences 
in  a  gasoline  launch  are  not  so  great  as  one  might  sup- 
pose. No  one  should  run  a  boat  having  a  gasoline  en- 
gine without  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  fuel.  The 


53 

chief  danger  lies  in  handling  gasoline  carelessly.  It  is 
entirely  wrong  for  anyone  to  blame  an  explosion  on  the 
engine  itself  or  upon  its  makers,  as  many  are  ofttimes 
inclined  to  do.  When  a  steam  boiler  explodes  the  blame 
is  generally  laid  at  the  door  of  the  operator,  where  it 
almost  invariably  belongs.  Xo  one  would  think  of 
making  a  wholesale  condemnation  of  the  steam  engine 
because  of  a  boiler  explosion,  or  an  accident  which 
happened  to  any  part  of  the  machinery.  Xo  more 
should  the  gas  engine  as  a  power  be  condemned  because 
of  an  occasional  accident.  It  is  the  same  with  any 
branch  of  machinery,  and  no  branch  is  entirely  free 
from  the  danger  of  an  accident. 

If  by  any  chance  the  quantity  of  gasoline  should  take 
fire,  water  should  never  be  used  to  put  it  out  unless 
it  can  be  employed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  wash  the 
gasoline  overboard,  or  at  least  to  a  place  where  it  would 
burn  itself  out  without  doing  great  damage.  Should 
water  be  used,  the  burning  oil  will  float  on  top,  and 
spread  rapidly,  carrying  the  flame  with  it.  It  is  likely 
in  this  manner  to  do  more  damage  than  it  would  if  left  to 
burn  out  in  place  where  the  fire  originated.  To  choke 
the  flame,  some  porous  non-combustible  substance  should 


54 

be  spread  over  the  burning  oil.  If  the  body  of  gasoline 
is  not  deep,  sand  or  earth  will  answer  the  purpose  very 
well  and  will  be  more  effectual  if  damp.  But  if  the  body 
of  the  fluid  is  deep  and  a  large  quantity  of  earth  and 
sand  cannot  be  quickly  spread  upon  the  oil,  the  sand  will 
sink  to  the  bottom  and  the  oil  is  quite  likely  lo  continue 
burning  on  top  of  the  sand.  For  this  reason  ordinary 
flour  is  a  much  better  extinguisher,  as  it  will  float  on  top 
of  the  oil  and  effectually  choke  the  flame.  Should  gas- 
oline catch  fire  in  a  room  which  may  be  tightly  closed, 
the  best  extinguisher  and  the  one  that  will  act  most 
quickly  is  aqua  ammonia.  A  bottle  of  this  liquid  thrown 
into  a  room  in  which  there  is  a  fire,  and  with  force 
enough  to  break  it,  will  soon  extinguish  any  fire.  This 
is  because  the  fumes  of  ammonia  will  rapidfy  spread,  and 
atmosphere  will  soon  be  so  filled  with  it  that  it  will  no 
longer  support  combustion. 

If  a  bottle  of  ammonia  is  hung  by  a  string  containing 
a  fusible  link  in  a  room  where  gasoline  is  stored,  the 
arrangement  will  make  a  very  effective  fire  extinguisher. 
The  string  should  pass  over  a  pulley  in  the  ceiling  of  the 
room,  and  the  link  should  be  placed  in  a  position  where 
fire  is  most  likely  to  occur.  The  link  may  be  made  out  of 


55 

ordinary  fuse  wire,  such  as  is  usually  employed  by  electri- 
cians and  which  may  be  obtained  of  any  electrical  supply 
store.  Several  fusible  links  may  be  placed  at  different 
points  in  the  string.  Then  a  fire  starting  near  a  link 
would  melt  it  and  let  the  bottle  of  ammonia  drop  on  the 
floor  and  break,  permitting  the  ammonia  to  escape  into 
the  room.  The  writer  has  never  tried  this  fire  extin- 
guisher, but  suggests  it  as  something  that  is  sure  to 
prove  effectual.  He  believes  that  two  quarts  of  strong 
ammonia  will  be  sufficient  for  a  room  containing  1,000 
cubic  feet  of  space.  Employing  ammonia  as  a  fire  extin- 
guisher is  an  idea  that 'is  not  original  with  the  writer. 
It  has  already  prove  itself  effectual  in  extinguishing  fires 
in  warehouses  containing  cottonseed,  an  exceedingly  in- 
flammable substance. 


CHAPTER  V. 

CHOOSING  AN  ENGINE. 

*T*HOSE  who  are  thinking  of  purchasing  or  building  a 
gasoline  pleasure  boat  for  the  next  season's  outing, 
would  do  well  to  make  their  selections  at  an  early  date. 
Those  who  put  the  matter  off  until  after  New  Year's  day  are 
likely  to  find  the  factories  overcrowded  with  orders,  and 
they  may  not  be  able  to  secure  their  boat  until  the  sum- 
mer season  is  far  advanced.  This  is  especially  true  when 
the  boat  is  built  to  order  and  to  suit  the  individual  taste 
or  needs  of  the  purchaser.  Xo  one  is  more  at  sea  than 
the  average  layman  who  goes  about  the  selection  of 
a  gasoline  engine,  and  it  is  the  object  of  this  article  to 
aid  this  class  of  individuals. 

When  about  to  select  an  engine,  decide  first  upon  the 
horse  power  that  will  be  required.  If  you  are  not  par- 
ticular about  speed,  the  following  rough  rule  will  give  a 
resultant  horse  power  that  is  suited  to  average  conditions, 
and  for  craft  between  20  and  50  feet  1.  o.  a.:  subtract 
9  from  one-half  the  1.  o.  a.  and  the  result  will  be  the  de- 


livered    horse    power    of    the  gasoline  engine  required. 
Stated  as  a  formula: 

Let  H^zthe  horse  power  required. 
Let  L=l.  o.  a. 

L 
Then  H— 9. 

2 

For  Example:  Suppose  it  is  desired  to  find  the  horse 
power  suited  to  a  35-ft.  boat.  L=35,  then  H=35/2 — 
9=171^ — 9=8^,  say  a  9  or  lo-horse-power  engine.  Re- 
member, that  this  rule  is  a  rough  one  only.  If  a  definite 
speed  is  desired,  the  problem  is  too  complex  for  any  one 
but  a  marine  engineer,  and  it  had  best  be  left  to  the 
builder  of  the  boat,  or  its  designer,  if  such  a  person  be 
employed. 

Having  decided  upon  the  size  of  the  engine,  the  next 
thing  to  do  is  to  select  the  style  of  engine.  Two-cycle 
engines  are  best  for  small  craft  where  the  question  of 
fuel  economy  is  not  an  important  one.  They  are  of  sim- 
pler construction  than  the  four-cycle  engine,  and  for  this 
reason  there  are  fewer  parts  to  take  care  of.  If  well 
designed  and  carefully  made,  a  two-cycle  engine  is  fully 
as  good  as  the  four-cycle  engine ;  but  strange  to  say,  it 


59 

is  not  every  engine  maker  who  understands  the  require- 
ments of  a  two-cycle  engine.  They  do  as  a  rule  use  a 
little  more  gasoline  per  horse  power  than  the  four-cycle 
engine,  but  they  are  as  reliable  under  intelligent  manage- 
ment as  the  four-cycle  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  one  of 
the  longest  journeys  ever  made  by  a  gasoline  yacht  was 
with  one  driven  by  a  two-cycle  engine. 

Concerning  the  proportion  of  weight  to  power,  the 
two-cycle  engine  has  a  slight  advantage,  but  the  differ- 
ence between  the  average  weight  of  two-cycle  engines 
and  the  average  weight  of  four-cycle  engines  of  the  same 
horse  power  is  not  so  great  as  might  be  supposed.  Con- 
cerning the  choice  between  the  two  styles  of  engines, 
when  both  are  equally  well  designed  and  constructed, 
the  whole  matter  narrows  itself  down  to  one  of  fuel 
consumption,  and  even  then  the  advantage  possessed  by 
the  four-cycle  engines  is  not  as  a  general  rule  so  very 
great,  although  personally  the  author  would  prefer  a  two- 
cycle  engine  for  small  powers  and  a  four-cycle  engine  for 
large  powers,  say  of  over  fifteen  or  twenty  horse  power. 

In  the  matter  of  duplication  of  cylinders,  the  author 
would  say  that,  leaving  the  matter  of  first  cost  out  of  con- 
sideration, he  believes  the  multiple-cylinder  engine  has 


6o 

many  advantages  over  an  engine  with  a  single  cylinder. 
Among  these  are  steadier  running,  greater  ease  of  start- 
ing^ and  less  weight  for  the  same  power.  Although  a 
multiple-cylinder  engine  makes  more  parts  to  take  care 
of,  in  case  one  cylinder  gets  out  of  order,  it  is  quite  pos- 
sible to  run  to  port  with  the  remaining  cylinder  or  cylin- 
ders. Gasoline  engines  of  from  four  to  six  horse  power 
and  up  can  usually  be  obtained  in  multiple  cylinders,  and 
quite  frequently  with  three  or  four  cylinders.  It  seems 
to  be  the  general  opinion  of  experienced  gas-engine  men 
that,  so  far  as  easy  running  and  steadiness  of  propulsion 
are  concerned,  a  three-cylinder  engine  is  all  that  may  be 
desired,  and  that  the  four-cylinder  engine  has  its  only 
advantage  in  the  fact  that  it  is  not  so  tall  as  a  thfee- 
cylinder  engine  of  the  same  power,  a  condition  which 
lowers  the  center  of  gravity. 

Having  decided  upon  the  size  and  upon  the  number  of 
cylinders  required,  the  next  thing  in  order  is  to  choose 
the  particular  make  of  engine  which  will  best  suit  your 
requirements.  In  the  first  place,  be  strictly  on  your 
guard  against  that  smoothly-talking  individual,  the  gas- 
engine  salesman,  whose  business  is  to  sell  engines  re- 
gardless of  their  good  qualities.  The  agent  himself  is, 


6i 

as  a  rule,  in  nowise  to  blame  for  selling  an  engine  of 
poor  quality,  as  that  is  his  business.  In  fact  the  poorer 
the  article  and  the  less  its  reputation  the  better  is  the 
salesman  who  manages  to  dispose  of  it.  This  phase  of 
the  question  is  a  more  troublesome  feature  in  the  gaso- 
line engine  business  than  in  any  other.  And  it  is  so,  be- 
cause manufacturers  of  this  class  of  machinery  seldom,  if 
ever,  give  a  written  guarantee  to  cover  anything  further 
than  the  material  of  which  the  engine  is  built.  They 
will  very  seldom  guarantee  the  operation  of  the  engine 
for  even  a  limited  time.  This  state  of  affairs  is  the  out- 
come of  the  story  once  scattered  broadcast  by  the  gas- 
oline-engine builders  that  their  engines  would  practically 
run  themselves.  It  is  now  the  prevailing  idea  that  such 
is  the  case,  and  the  man  who  has  never  run  a  gasoline 
engine  thoroughly  believes  that  all  he  has  to  do  is  to 
give  the  crank  one  turn,  and  that  the  engine  will  run 
without  any  attention  whatever  until  stopped. 

Gasoline-engine  builders  have  learned  better,  and 
now  they  send  out  with  their  engines  more  or  less  care- 
fully compiled  instruction  books.  Dissipating  such  a 
well-rooted  idea,  however,  as  that  the  engine  will  run  it- 
self, is  like  breaking  up  a  bad  habit.  It  almost  needs  a 


62 


surgical  operation.  Still  another  cause  of  the  unwill- 
ingness to  give  a  guarantee  of  satisfactory  running  is  the 
tendency  of  the  gasoline  runner  to  entirely  ignore  in- 
structions, and  the  preconceived  notion  that  he  knows 
more  about  running  the  gasoline  engine  than  the  man 
who  built  it.  The  inexperienced  man  seems  to  be  de- 
termined to  throw  every  adjustment  on  the  engine  out  of 
order,  and  in  fact  he  keeps  fiddling  away  until  the  engine 
will  not  run  at  all.  Then  he  sends  post  haste  for  a  man 
from  the  factory  to  come  and  straighten  the  matter  out, 
and  generally  wishes  the  builder  to  pay  the  man's  ex* 
penses. 

The  first  step  for  the  prospective  buyer  to  take  is 
naturally  to  write  to  every  maker  of  gas  engines  who 
advertises  in  his  favorite  paper,  and  secure  their  cata- 
logues and  price  lists.  He  will  find  of  course  that  each 
one  builds  the  best  engine  on  earth,  if  his  story  is  to  be 
believed;  but  it  is  a  sad  truth  that  there  are  many  very 
poor  gasoline  engines  offered  for  sale  to  the  unsuspect- 
ing public.  You  will  probably  find  several  catalogues 
which  contain  an  engine  very  nearly  the  size  which  you 
have  selected  for  your  new  launch.  If  the  circulars  you 
received  contain  testimonials  from  persons  who  live  in 


your  vicinity,  make  it  a  point  to  call  on  them,  and  have 
a  private  chat  about  their  gas  engines.  If  you  do  not 
find  their  testimonials,  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  man- 
ufacturers from  whom  you  receive  the  catalogue  can  give 
you  references  to  owners  of  their  make  of  engine  who 
live  within  easy  reach. 

Having  selected  one  or  more  of  these  individuals,  pre- 
pare yourself  beforehand  with  a  stock  of  questions  to  .ask 
him  about  the  performance  of  his  engine,  and  place  more 
reliance  upon  the  words  of  a  man  who  has  his  engine  for 
a  considerable  period  than  upon  the  statements  of  one 
who  has  had  his  engine  only  a  few  weeks. 

Before  asking  the  questions  get  the  man's  confidence, 
find  out  how  much  the  engine  has  been  run,  and  secure  a 
narrative  of  all  his  experiences  with  the  engine  when  he 
was  running  it  himself.  Then  begin  your  questions. 
Find  out,  if  possible,  the  longest  as  well  as  the  shortest 
time  it  has  taken  him  to  get  the  engine  started,  and  how 
long  it  has  run  continuously  at  any  time  without  stopping. 
Learn,  if  possible,  if  the  engine  is  addicted  to  thumping  or 
pounding  in  any  part  of  the  mechanism,  and  whether  such 
a  condition  is  of  frequent  occurrence,  or  only  occasional 
Ask  him  how  long  his  ignition  apparatus  will  last,  and 


64 

how  frequently  the  battery  has  to  be  renewed.  Find  out 
if  he  has  ever  had  any  breakdowns,  and  their  nature 
and  extent. 

If  possible,  get  him  to  take  you  out  in  his  boat,  and 
watch  the  running  of  the  engine  yourself.  Note  if  there 
is  much  work  about  starting  the  engine,  and  try  to  find 
the  length  of  time  it  takes  to  get  the  boat  under  way. 
N/)te  if  there  are  any  complicated  attachments  or  a  great 
number  of  attachments  on  the  engine.  Simplicity  is  of 
the  first  consideration,  and  much  lessens  the  bill  for  re- 
pairs in  a  season's  running.  If  the  engine  h  in  a  filthy 
condition,  or  If  it  is  running  with  its  parts  badly  out  of 
adjustment  when  it  is  apparent  that  proper  adjustments 
could  readily  be  made,  it  is  a  point  in  favor  of  the  engine. ' 
Any  engine  that  will  run  fairly  well  when  badly  handled 
has  considerable  to  recommend  it.  Should  the  engine  be 
clean  and  all  the  adjustments  properly  made,  and  yet  run 
in  a  manner  that  is  noisy  and  jerky,  it  is  a  very  poor 
engine. 

A  badly  balanced  engine  will  transmit  a  great  deal  of 
vibration  to  the  boat  at  all  speeds.  Almost  any  engine 
will  set  up  vibration  of  the  boat  at  one  particular  speed, 
but  not  at  others.  This  is  because  the  rate  of  vibration 


65 

of  the  boat  itself  is  in  time  with  the  speed  of  the  engine 
just  at  that  moment.  If  you  find  that  the  engine  trans- 
mits very  little  vibration  to  the  boat,  it  may  be  presumed 
that  it  is  well  balanced. 

Another  way  to  tell  whether  an  engine  is  in  good 
balance  is  to  see  if  it  will  run  for  quite  a  little  time  after 
the  fuel  and  the  igniter  current  have  both  been  turned  off. 
Of  two  engines,  that  are  of  the  same  size,  and  equally 
well  lubricated,  and  which  have  practically  the  same 
friction  load,  the  engine  will  run  the  longer  after  power 
is  shut  off  that  is  in  better  balance.  Resting  the  hand 
upon  the  cylinder  head  when  the  engine  is  running  with- 
out power,  you  should  be  unable  to  detect  a  jar  at  each 
revolution,  for  if  a  knock  is  perceptible  when  the  engine 
is  running  idle  it  is  a  certain  sign  that  it  is  out  of  balance. 

If  the  engine  is  counterbalanced  in  the  fly  wheel  in- 
stead of  on  the  crank  webs  or  crank  disks  it  gives  a 
wrenching  action  to  the  shaft,  and  the  balancing  is  im- 
perfect. A  well-balanced  engine  should  have  the  counter- 
weight as  nearly  opposite  the  crank  pin  as  it  is  possible 
to  put  them.  In  a  two-cylinder  engine  with  the  crank 
pin  at  1 80°,  or  in  a  three-cylinder  engine  with  the  cranks 
at  120°,  a  balancing  effect  is  obtained  which  is  much  bet- 


66 

ter  than  that  produced  by  a  counter-weight.  It  is  the 
custom  with  some  makers  to  put  the  crank  pins  on  the 
same  side  of  the  shaft  for  a  two-cylinder  engine,  for  the 
reason  that  the  impulses  are  thus  better  distributed 
throughout  the  two  revolutions  of  the  engine.  It  is  gen- 
erally conceded  that  a  better  balance  is  obtained  with  the 
cranks  at  180°  and  in  a  vertical  two-cylinder  engine  of  the 
four-cycle  type  with  an  enclosed  crank  case,  the  latter 
arrangement  avoids  the  pumping  action  that  occurs  when 
the  cranks  are  on  the  same  side  of  the  shaft,  and  there  is, 
therefore,  no  necessity  of  a  hermetically  sealed  crank 
case. 

Should  the  counter-weight  be  in  the  fly  wheel,  see  if 
there  is  much  of  a  wavering  motion  when  the  engine  is 
running,  or,  in  other  words,  see  if  the  fly  wheel  is  out  of 
true  sideways.  Should  such  be  the  case,  it  shows  that  the 
crank  shaft  is  too  weak  for  an  engine  of  this  kind. 

Note  if  the  bearings  give  much  trouble  from  overheat- 
ing, and  be  particular  to  ask  your  mentor  his  experience 
in  this  matter.  Find  out  if  he  considers  it  necessary  to 
keep  his  eye  on  the  engine  at  all  times,  or  whether  he  feels 
secure  in  giving  the  engine  only  an  occasional  glance  to 
see  if  matters  are  all  right. 


67 

If  you  can  see  the  inside  of  an  engine  of  the  kind 
you  wish  to  purchase,  after  it  has  been  running  for  some 
little  time,  it  will  assist  you  in  judging  of  the  pains  taken 
in  its  manufacture.  One  of  the  most  important  things 
in  a  gas  engine  is  to  have  a  piston  that  is«perfectly  gas 
tight,  for  any  leak  past  the  piston  causes  a  loss  of  power, 
and  in  a  two-cycle  engine  it  will  produce  explosions  in 
the  crank  chamber.  If  it  is  feasible  to  do  so,  remove 
the  cylinder  head  of  the  engine,  and  turn  the  fly  wheel 
over  until  the  pistcn  is  at  the  lower  dead  center.  If 
there  is  much  oil  on  the  side  of  the  cylinder  wipe  it  clean 
with  a  piece  of  waste,  and  see  if  there  has  been  an  even 
wear  on  the  entire  inner  circumference  of  the  cylinder 
wall.  If  the  wear  has  been  uneven,  some  parts  of  the 
cylinder  may  be  brighter  than  others,  but  if  the  engine 
has  been  running  for  some  time,  and  the  wear  is  even, 
there  will  be  a  polish  of  the  same  degree  of  brightness  all 
over  the  inner  surface  of  the  cylinder. 

There  are  iwo  ways  of  cutting  the  packing  rings  for 
the  piston.  One  is  to  make  a  straight  slot  in  the  ring, 
dividing  it  at  an  angle  of  about  45°  to  the  side  of  the 
ring.  This  form  of  slot  answers  very  well,  until  the 
rings  and  the  cylinder  begin  to  wear,  when  it  opens  up, 


68 

and  leaves  a  path  for  leakage  of  the  gases.  The  other 
method  of  cutting  the  packing  ring  is  to  make  a  slot 
halfway  through  the  ring  at  right  angles  to  the  side  and 
a  similar  slot,  not  very  far  from  the  first  one,  from  the 
other  side.  These  two  slots  are  usually  from  half  an 
inch  to  an  inch  apart,  and  are  joined  by  another  slot 
parallel  to  the  side  of  the  ring.  If  carefully  made,  there 
will  be  no  leak  through  this  kind  of  a  cut  in  the  ring,  no 
matter  how  much  wear  should  occur.  It  ii  scarcely 
necessary  to  say  that  the  latter  arrangement  is  the  one  to 
be  preferred. 

While  a  cylinder  head  is  off,  note  the  location  of  the 
igniter,  and  also  its  construction.  The  points  of  an 
electric  igniter  should  be  short  and  thick  rather  than  long 
and  slender,  and  they  should  be  placed  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible in  the  path  of  the  incoming  charge  in  order  to  keep 
them  cool,  and  to  prevent  premature  explosion.  Note ; 
also  if  there  are  any  springs  or  bearings  in  the  igniter 
which  would  be  surrounded  bv  the  heat  of  combustion, 
as,  should  this  be  the  case,  the  igniter  will  surely  give 
trouble.  Projections  of  any  sort  in  any  part  of  the  com- 
bustion  space  are  detrimental  to  the  working  of  the 
engine,  and  if  they  are  not  so  placed  as  to  be  kept  cool  j 


69 

cither  by  the  water  jacket  or  by  the  impact  of  the  im- 
coming  charge,  they  are  certain  to  cause  annoyance. 
Projections  of  any  sort  on  the  end  of  the  piston  in  the 
shape  of  boltheads,  nuts,  igniter  strikers,  or  anything  of 
that  sort  which  would  be  likely  to  become  heated  to  a 
high  temperature  or  to  collect  soot,  are  productive  of 
premature  explosions,  and  should  cause  a  prospective 
purchaser  to  buy  an  engine  of  another  make.  This  does 
not  include  the  deflecting  plate  or  tube  of  i  two-cycle 
engine,  as  this  is  generally  quite  thick,  and  it  is,  in  any 
case,  exposed  to  the  cooling  effect  of  the  incoming  charge. 

The  collection  of  soot,  either  from  the  fuel  itself  or 
from  the  lubricating  oil,  is  apt  to  occur  upon  any  pro- 
jection or  sharp  corner  in  the  combustion  space,  where  it 
deposits  in  the  form  of  flakes  or  cones.  These  flakes  or 
cones  get  red  hot  very  soon  after  the  engine  has  been 
started,  and  are  apt  to  ignite  the  charge  before  the  proper 
time,  thus  causing  a  thumping  in  the  engine. 

In  a  two-cycle  engine,  it  is  quite  important  that  the 
crank  case  should  be  gas  tight.  If  it  is  not,  much  fuel 
will  be  wasted  by  being  driven  through  the  leaks  and 
a  dangerous  explosive  mixture  may  collect  in  the  engine 
room.  Such  a  condition  is  easily  determined  by  watch- 


yo 

ing  the  joint  of  the  crank  case  and  the  ends  of  the  crank- 
shaft bearing  while  the  engine  is  running,  and  it  will  be 
shown  by  the  exudation  of  oil  through  the  leaks. 

A  marine  engine,  particularly  when  it  is  to  go  in  the 
hands  of  the  novice,  should  preferably  have  good  brass 
or  bronze  bearings,  rather  than  Babbit  metal,  as  an  over- 
heated bearing  is  quite  likely  to  cause  the  Babbit  metal  to 
melt  and  throw  the  engine  out  of  commission.  The 
throttle  valve  for  controlling  admission  of  the  charge 
into  the  cylinder  should  be  of  the  type  that  will  permit 
of  its  being  opened  or  closed  by  a  small  movement  of  a 
lever.  The  writer  knows  of  an  engine  which  had  a  globe 
valve  throttle,  and  which  required  about  four  turns  of  the 
valve  to  shut  off  the  charge  when  the  engine  was  running 
at  full  speed.  Anybody  who  has  run  an  engine  to  any 
extent  can  readily  see  that  such  an  arrangement  is  nothing 
more  than  a  nuisance. 

Turning  again  to  the  igniter  mechanism,  choose  an 
engine  which  has  a  mechanism  of  the  kind  which  can  be 
adjusted  without  removing  the  cylinder  head.  Do  not 
buy  an  engine  which  has  a  long  igniter  rod  tripped  by  a 
toothed  cam,  as  such  an  arrangement  is  uncertain  in  its 
action  and  very  noisy.  The  trips  should  be  ?s  near  to 


the  reciprocating-  part  of  the  igniter  as  it  is  possible  to 
place  it.  Avoid  any  engine  which  employs  flat  springs, 
as  they  are  inclined  to  cause  trouble,  and  break  without 
the  slightest  warning. 

For  a  marine  gasoline  engine,  the  vaporizer  is  usually 
to  be  preferred  to  a  carbureter,  and  as  these  two  instru- 
ments are  very  often  confused,  and  their  meaning  is  not 
clearly  understood  by  everyone,  an  explanation  is  neces- 
sary. 

A  carbureter  is  an  instrument  by  means  of  which  a 
portion  of  the  air  which  passes  to  the  engine  is  unriched 
with  vapor  by  passing  this  air  either  over  or  through  a 
considerable  body  of  the  liquid. 

A  vaporizer  is  a  device  which  is  employed  to  trans- 
form a  small  quantity  of  the  gasoline  to  a  finely  divided 
spray,  which  usually  turns  at  once  into  a  vapor.  It  dif- 
fers from  the  carbureter,  in  that  it  transforms  the  fuel 
into  vapor  only  as  it  is  needed  and  vaporizes  only  the 
exact  quantity  required  for  a  single  charge,  while  the 
carbureter  always  contains  a  quantity  of  vapor  from 
which  a  supply  is  drawn  to  the  cylinder. 

Carbureters  are  wasteful  of  fuel,  in  that  they  only 
vaporize  only  its  lighter  constituents,  leaving  a  useless 


residue  which  has  to  be  thrown  away.  They  are  also  very 
sensitive  to  changes  of  temperature,  and  in  extremely 
cold  weather  it  is  necessary  to  heat  them  or  the  air  that 
passes  through  them,  in  order  that  they  may  work  proper- 
ly. A  properly  designed  vaporizer,  on  the  contrary,  is 
subject  to  none  of  these  troubles,  and  on  a  marine  engine 
they  prove  themselves  much  more  convenient  and  easier 
to  handle. 

If  you  can  induce  a  friend  who  has  had  a  great  deal  of 
experience  with  gas  engines  to  make  your  selection  for 
you,  or  if  you  will  hire  a  reliable  expert  who  is  not  pre- 
judiced in  favor  of  any  particular  engine,  it  will  probably 
save  you  much  trouble  in  selecting  an  engine,  and  you 
will  feel  quite  certain  that  your  outing  will  be  a  season 
of  pleasure  rather  than  a  chapter  of  troubles.  A  little 
knowledge  of  the  subject  on  your  part  will  not,  however, 
come  amiss,  and  you  will  be  able  to  know  whether  your 
agent  is  working  for  your  benefit  or  for  that  of  the  build- 
er. If,  however,  you  can  find  an  engine  that  has  run 
several  seasons,  and  has  given  its  owner  little  or  no 
trouble,  its  a  prettv  good  sign  that  the  purchase  of  such 
an  engine  will  be  a  good  investment. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

IGNITERS. 

'TpHERE  is  nothing  that  will  put  a  gas  engine  out  of  com- 
mission so  soon  as  a  disordered  ignition  device.  In 
fact,  the  igniter  may  be  said  literally  to  furnish  the  spark  of 
life  for  the  engine.  It  takes  but  a  few  successive  miss- 
fires  to  stop  an  engine,  and  even  missfires,  occurring  at 
frequent  intervals,  will  reduce  the  power  of  the  engine. 
\Yhile  the  plan  of  following"  strictly  the  printed  instruc- 
tions which  usually  accompany  the  engine  is  a  very  good 
one,  and  while  if  they  are  followed  intelligently  a  great 
deal  of  trouble  will  be  avoided,  yet  at  times  an  emergency 
will  arise  which  the  printed  instructions  do  not  cover.  It 
is  in  these  emergencies  that  a  knowledge  of  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  electricity  is  a  prime  requisite.  For 
the  reason  that  the  electric  igniter  is  employed  upon  at 
least  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  marine  gas  engines  in  use  at 
the  present  time,  it  is  the  purpose  of  the  author  to  give  in 
this  article  a  brief  description  not  only  of  the  electric 
igniter  itself,  but  also  of  the  electric  principles  involved, 


74 

in  order  that  the  reader  may  be  prepared  for  any  emer- 
gency. 

In  order  to  make  this  discussion  intelligible  to  those 
who  know  nothing  whatever  of  electricity,  the  author  will 
start  at  the  foot  of  the  ladder  and  explain  the  meaning  of 
the  terms  involved.  He  trusts  that  those  of  his  readers 
who  are  better  informed  will  pardon  this  elementary  por- 
tion of  the  discussion. 

A  source  of  the  electrical  energy  produces  a  difference 
of  pressure,  and  when  there  is  a  complete  circuit  from 
one  terminal  of  the  source  to  the  other,  consisting  of 
electric  conductors,  ,this  difference  of  pressure  causes  a 
current  to  flow.  The  most  familiar  sources  of  electrical 
energy  are  the  dynamo  and  the  chemical  source  known 
as  the  electric  cell,  commonly  but  erroneously  called  a 
"battery."  A  battery  is  a  combination  of  cells  grouped 
together  in  such  a  way  that  the  combined  strength  of  the 
entire  group  may  be  concentrated  in  one  circuit.  In  order 
that  an  electric  current  may  flow  there  must  be  a  continu- 
ous, unbroken  path  of  conducting  material  from  one 
terminal  of  the  source  of  energy  to  the  other,  and  through 
the  source  of  energy  to  the  other  terminal. 

In  order  that  this  phase  of  the  subject  may  be  better 


flG    I 


76 

understood  it  will  be  explained  by  wbat  is  generally 
known  as  the  "waterworks  analogy."  Consider  the  pump, 
B,  Fig.  i,  as  corresponding  to  the  source  of  electrical 
energy,  or  battery,  B,  in  Fig.  2.  So  long  as  the  pump  is 
in  operation  and  there  are  no  obstructions  in  the  pipe, 
c  o  z,  a  current  of  water  will  flow  from  c  to  s.  In  the 
same  way,  if  the  battery,  B,  is  in  good  order,  and  there  is 
no  obstruction  to  the  circuit,  cos,  Fig.  2,  a  current  will 
flew  from  c,  through  the  conductor,  to  z. 

It  is  easy  for  the  reader  to  understand  that  an  ob- 
struction in  the  pipe,  c  o  z,  Fig.  I,  or  in  the  pump,  B,  will 
produce  a  resistance  to  the  flow  of  water,  and  the  pressure 
at  the  pump  would  be  increased  by  the  obstruction.  An 
obstruction  in  the  pump  itself  will  have  the  same  effect 
as  one  in  the  pipe,  for  it  is  obvious  that  the  water  must 
not  only  flow  through  the  pipe,  but  also  through  the 
pump  from  z  to  c.  The  same  thing  is  true  about  the 
electric  circuit  in  Fig.  2.  An  obstruction  of  any  kind 
in  the  wire  or  in  the  source  of  energy,  either  one,  would 
reduce  the  flow  of  current  or  necessitate  an  increase 
of  pressure  at  B,  in  order  to  retain  the  same  flow  of  cur- 
rent in  the  circuit.  In  an  electric  circuit  this  obstruc- 
tion may  consist  either  of  a  reduction  in  the  size  of  the 


o 


.13 


He 


78 

wire  or  other  material  used  as  a  path  for  the  circuit,  or 
in  the  introduction  of  material  through  which  it  is  more 
difficult  for  the  current  to  flow.  Thus  in  the  waterworks 
system  a  pipe  with  a  rough  interior  will  form  a  path  of 
higher  resistance  to  the  flow  of  the  current  of  water 
than  a  pipe  having  a  smooth  interior.  Again,  a  pipe  of 
small  diameter  will  offer  greater  resistance  to  the  flow 
of  water  than  one  of  larger  diameter.  This  reduction  in 
the  size  of  the  pipe  is  analogous  to  a  reduction  in  the 
size  of  the  wire  in  Fig.  2,  and  the  rough  pipe  and  the 
smooth  one  are  analogous  to  wires  of  high  and  low  resist- 
ance respectively. 

An  increase  in  resistance  to  the  flow  of  water  causes  a 
generation  of  heat  at  the  point  where  the  resistance  is 
located.  This  is,  however,  not  perceptible  in  the  water 
conductor,  owing  to  the  cooling  effect  of  the  liquid.  In 
an  electric  conductor  the  heat  generated  by  resistance  is 
quite  frequently  manifest  to  the  casual  observer.  This 
generation  of  heat  causes  a  loss  of  energy  directly  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  heat  given  off,  and  wherever  it 
occurs  it  makes  a  corresponding  reduction  in  the  amount 
of  energy  in  the  circuit  which  is  available  for  other  pur- 
poses than  heat. 


79 

Suppose  a  valve  to  be  placed  at  A,  in  Fig-,  i,  If  this 
valve  be  closed  slowly,  the  effect  upon  the  valve  of  the 
current  of  water  will  not  be  perceptible,  but,  if  the  valve 
be  shut  quickly,  the  inertia  of  the  moving-  column  of 
water  will  be  so  great  that  if  a  valve  be  not  a  strong  one 
it  may  be  broken  open,  for  the  tendency  of  the  water  is 
to  continue  on  its  path.  Likewise  a  sudden  obstruction 
in  the  circuit,  Fig.  2,  as  for  instance,  parting  the  wire  at 
A,  producing  an  air  gap  which  has  a  high  resistance  to 
the  passage  of  an  electric  current,  has  a  similar  effect. 
The  tendency  of  the  current  is  to  continue  flowing.  Its 
inertia  will  have  a  Jendency  to  break  down  the  obstruction 
and  to  continue  flowing  towards  z.  It  is  impossible  to 
break  the  circuit  quickly  enough  to  prevent  a  momentary 
continuation  of  the  current  through  the  short  air  gap  pro- 
duced at  the  first  parting  of  the  circuit.  The  passage  of 
the  current  through  this  obstruction  produces  heat,  owing 
to  the  high  resistance  of  the  gap,  and  a  spark  results.  If 
a  portion  of  the  circuit,  c  o  z,  consists  of  a  coil  of  wire 
surrounding  an  iron  core,  the  inertia  at  the  moment  of 
breaking  is  heightened  to  a  considerable  degree,  and  the 
spark  is  larger  in  consequence.  Such  a  coil  is  that  used 
with  the  ordinary  make-and-break  igniter,  and  is  known 


8o 

as  a  "spark  coil."  It  will  now  be  seen  that  anv  obstacle  in 
electric  circuit  reduces  the  amount  of  current  flow,  and 
that  the  circuit  must  be  a  complete  one,  not  only  outside 
the  source  of  energy,  but  within  it.  It  has  been  shown 
that  resistance  causes  heat  and  loss  of  energy,  and  that 
sudden  parting  of  the  circuit  produces  a  spark,  which  is 
intensified  by  the  use  of  an  instrument  like  a  spark-coil. 

Obstructions  to  current  flow  may  be  produced  in  many 
ways,  and  the  reader  must  remember  that  in  order  to  get 
the  greatest  efficiency  out  of  this  apparatus  he  must  have 
the  fewest  possible  number  of  obstructions  in  the  cir- 
cuit. It  necessitates  a  certain  amount  of  current  and 
pressure  to  produce  a  spark  at  the  gap  of  sufficient  in- 
tensity to  ignite  the  charge  of  gas  and  air  in  a  gas  engine. 
Any  obstruction  in  the  circuit  in  the  form  of  resistance, 
no  matter  of  what  nature,  reduces  the  amount  of  current 
flow.  For  this  reason  the  greatest  of  pain.s  should  be 
taken  to  use  wire  of  ample  size,  to  employ  the  least  pos- 
sible number  of  connections,  and  to  have  all  of  these  as 
good  as  they  can  be  made.  Every  reasonable  precaution 
should  be  taken  against  loose  connections,  and  they  should 
at  all  times  be  kept  bright  and  clean,  for  the  reason 
that  the  outsides  of  the  metals  are  poor  conductors. 


8i 

Both  in  order  to  make  the  resistance  of  the  circuit  low 
and  to  decrease  the  liability  to  breakage,  it  is  advisable  to 
use  No.  14  copper  wire  for  all  connections;  weather- 
proof insulation  or  covering  for  the  wire  of  the  very 
best  quality  should  be  employed,  in  order  to  avoid  leak- 
ages of  cvirrent. 

In  order  to  obtain  a  spark  across  a  gap  in  a  circuit  in 
which  the  pressure  is  not  a  very  great  one  it  is  necessary 
to  first  close  the  circuit  and  then  to  open  it,  so  as  to 
produce  an  air  gap.  That  is  to  say,  there  must  be  first 
an  unobstructed  path  for  the  current,  and  then  an  air 
gap  must  be  introduced  in  this  path  in  ordtr  to  get  a 
spark.  When  there  is  a  spark  coil  in  the  circuit  the  cir- 
cuit must  be  closed  for  a  time,  depending  upon  the  coil 
itself,  in  order  to  get  the  largest  possible  spark,  for  the 
following  reasons  :  In  an  electro-magnet  the  magnet  does 
not  reach  its  full  power  at  the  instant  the  circuit  is  closed. 
The  magnetic  strength  is  built  up  gradually,  and  although 
this  building  up  takes  place  in  a  very  small  fraction  of  a 
second,  this  time  element  must  be  considered  in  the 
operation  of  an  electric  ignition  device.  A  change  in  the 
strength  of  a  magnet  around  which  is  wound  an  electric 
conductor  will  cause  a  current  to  flow  in  the  wire  if  the 


1 


0 

L 


JO 
0 

C 


ends  are  joined,  making  a  complete  circuit,  of  which  the 
coil  is  a  part.  The  pressure  generated  by  this  change  in 
the  magnetic  strength  depends  both  upon  the  magnitude 
of  the  change  and  the  rapidity  with  which  it  is  made. 

Suppose  a  magnet,  A  B,  Fig.  3,  to  be  surrounded  by 
a  coil  of  wire  as  indicated,  and  that  by  some  means  the 
strength  of  the  magnet  is  suddenly  altered  from  its  full 
strength  to  nothing,  a  current  of  short  duration  will  be 
induced  in  the  wire  in  one  direction.  If  the  strength  of 
the  magnet  is  made  to  rise  suddenly  from  zero  to  the 
same  strength  as  before  the  magnetism  was  taken  away 
a  current  will  be  made  to  flow  in  the  wire  equal  in  amount 
to  that  when  the  strength  was  reduced,  and  the  direction 
of  flow  will  be  opposite  to  that  produced  when  the 
strength  of  the  magnet  was  taken  away. 

Suppose  that  A  B  is  simply  a  bundle  of  soft  iron  wires, 
and  that  a  current  is  made  to  flow  through  the  wire  from 
an  external  source  as  the  battery,  D,  Fig.  4.  The  cur- 
rent flowing  in  the  wire  induces  magnetism  in  the  core, 
A  B.  If  after  the  magnetism  has  risen  to  its  full  strength 
the  circuit  be  broken  at  E,  the  magnetism  in  A  B  makes 
a  sudden  drop  to  zero,  and  this  change  tends  to  produce  a 
flow  of  current  in  the  coil,  and  greatly  increases  the 


84 

inertia  effect  over  that  manifested  when  there  !s  no  coil  in 
the  circuit. 

Since  the  strength  of  the  induced  current  depends 
upon  the  magnitude  of  the  change,  it  is  evident  that 
the  magnet  must  be  allowed  to  reach  its  full  strength 
before  breaking  the  circuit,  in  order  to  get  the  maximum 
inertia  effect.  As  the  pressure  produced  by  the  coil 
depends  also  upon  the  rapidity  of  the  change,  it  may  be 
seen  that  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  quick  break  at  E  in 
order  to  get  as  large  a  spark  as  possible.  The  shorter 
the  core,  A  B,  the  quicker  will  the  magnetism  reach  its 
full  strength,  and  the  shorter  will  be  the  time  necessary 
for  the  circuit  to  be  closed  in  order  to  get  the  magnetism 
built  up.  It  is  for  this  reason  on  high-speed  engines, 
where  the  sparks  occur  at  frequent  intervals,  that  a  short 
spark  coil  is  necessary.  This  interval  between  sparks  is  so 
small  that,  if  a  long  core  is  used,  the  circuit  cannot  be 
closed  long  enough  for  the  magnetic  strength  to  reach  its 
maximum.  Hence  the  effect  of  the  spark  coil  is  reduced, 
weakening  the  spark.  This  is  a  matter  which  has  been 
recognized  by  engine-builders,  and  spark  coils  are  now  to 
be  seen  only  six  inches  in  length,  where  several  years 
ago  ten  or  twelve-inch  spark  coils  were  used. 


There  is  another  feature  of  electrical  induction — as 
this  effect  of  a  magnet  upon  an  electric  conductor  is 
called — which  it  may  be  as  well  to  point  out  to  the  reader 
in  connection  with  the  above  discussion.  In  the  first 
place,  a  coil  of  wire  without  a  core  has  a  similar  reaction 
upon  itself  when  there  is  a  change  in  the  current  strength, 
although  this  reaction  is  not  so  great  as  when  a  core  is 
present.  A  coil  of  this  kind,  or,  in  fact,  any  coil  wound 
in  a  helix,  as  the  winding  shown  in  Fig.  3  and  4  is  called, 
is  known  as  an  inductive  resistance.  Any  inductive  re- 
sistance is  a  greater  obstruction  to  a  current  of  varying 
strength  than  when  the  pressure  on  the  line  is  constant, 
or  when  the  conductor  is  comparativelv  straight.  This 
obstruction  to  the  current  flow  is  also  called  inductive 
resistance,  but  in  this  case  it  means  an  effect  upon  the 
circuit,  and  not  a  portion  of  the  circuit  itself. 

If  two  inductive  resistances  are  placed  in  the  same 
circuit,  and  their  time  element  does  not  happen  to  be  the 
same,  one  will,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  annul  the 
action  of  the  other.  For  this  reason  it  will  not  do  to 
place  two  spark  coils  in  the  same  circuit,  as  the  strength 
of  the  spark  is  generally  reduced  by  such  an  arrange- 
ment. If  it  is  found  necessary  to  reduce  the  amount  of 


L 


TIG    5 


87 

current  flowing  through  the  circuit  in  order  to  save  burn- 
ing the  igniter  point,  what  is  known  as  a  non-in  luctive 
resistance  should  be  used.  A  non-inductive  resistance  is 
usually  made  of  two  coils  of  wire,  in  which  the  current 
flows  in  opposite  directions  in  either  coil.  This  kind  of 
a  coil  can  be  most  readily  produced  by  the  method  shown 
in  Fig.  5.  Take  the  amount  of  wire  necessary  to  make 
the  coil  and  double  it,  as  shown  at  A,  then  begin  winding 
the  wire  around  a  core,  say  a  wooden  spool,  beginning  at 
the  loop  L.  The  winding  opened  out  will  then  appear 
as  shown  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  figure,  and  the  cur- 
rent in  contiguous  wires  will  be  flowing  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, as  indicated  by  the  arrows,  and  the  current  in  one 
wire  will  annul  the  inductive  effect  of  that  in  the  other. 

If  in  Fig.  4  a  great  many  turns  of  fine  w'ire  were  to 
be  wound  on  the  outside  of  the  coil  through  which  the 
current  from  the  battery,  D,  is  allowed  to  flow,  every 
fluctuation  in 'the  strength  of  the  magnet,  A  B,  produced 
by  a  variation  in  the  strength  of  the  current  in  the  battery 
circuit  will  induce  a  current  of  a  much  larger  pressure 
in  the  coil  of  one  wire.  If,  in  order  to  get  a  practically 
continuous  current  in  the  coil  of  fine  wire,  the  battery  cir- 
cuit be  rapidly  opened  and  closed,  the  apparatus  becomes 


88 

what  is  known  as  a  Ruhmkorff  coil,  which  is  illustrated  in 
cross  section  in  Fig.  6.  The  circuit  of  coarse  wire  is 
what  is  known  as  the  primary  circuit,  and  the  coil  of  wire 
through  which  the  battery  current  flows  is  called  the 
primary  winding.  The  fine  wire  coil  which  is  usually 
wound  upon  the  outside  of  the  coarse  wire  is  known  as 
the  secondary  winding,  and  this  becomes  the  source  of 
energy  for  secondary  circuit.  If  there  are  a  suffiient  num- 
ber of  turns  in  the  secondary,  as  compared  with  those  in 
the  primary  winding,  the  current  in  the  secondary  wind- 
ing will  be  at  such  a  high  pressure  that  it  will  arc  or  jump 
across  a  small  air  gap  without  the  circuit  being  closed 
beforehand.  This  secondary  spark  is  what  is  called  a 
"jump-spark,"  and  this  form  of  coil  is  now  generally 
known  in  gas  engine  parlance  as  a  "jump-spark  coil."  It 
has  become  very  popular  because  of  the  simplicity  of 
the  timing  mechanism  and  because  it  lends  itself  more 
readily  than  the  primary  or  make-and-break  spark  to  the 
requirements  of  engines  running  at  high  rotative  speeds. 
Its  popularity  has  manifested  itself  since  the  advent  of 
the  automobile,  and  is  used  quite  extensively  on  motor- 
cycle engines. 

In  Fig.  7  is  illustrated  the  principles  of  operation  of  the 


9o 

mechanism  used  for  the  make-and-break  igniter.  As 
explained  before,  the  idea  is  to  gef'a  closed  circuit  for  the 
proper  length  of  time,  and  then  to  break  the  circuit  with 
a  quick  movement.  In  the  figure,  B  represents  the  source 
of  energy,  5  the  spark  coil,  a  and  b  wires  from  the  spark 
coil  and  the  battery  respectively.  The  wire,  a,  is  con- 
nected to  the  insulated  electrode,  c,  and  b  to  a  binding 
post,  d,  attached  to  the  framework  of  the  engine,  At- 
taching a  wire  in  this  manner  is  called  "grounding"  it 
upon  the  engine. 

Those  parts  of  the  igniter  which  are  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  production  of  the  spark  are  usually  in- 
serted in  a  taper  plug,  as  shown  at  a,  and  this  plug  is 
placed  in  an  opening  in  the  engine  cylinder  wall,  as  indi- 
cated in  the  figure.  The  plug  is  made  gas-tight  by  mak- 
ing it  a  perfect  fit  in  the  opening  in  the  wall.  It  is  held  in 
place  by  two  or  more  studs,  as  shown  at  E  and  F.  The 
electrode,  c,  is  separated  from  the  metal  in  the  plug  by  a 
non-conducting  material,  mica  being  the  material  most 
generally  used  for  this  purpose.  The  movable  electrode, 
H,  does  not  require  insulation,  for  the  reason  that  its  side 
of  the  circuit  is  grounded  on  the  engine.  It  is  by  means 


91 

of  this  movable  electrode  that  the  circiut  is  opened  and 
closed. 

About  the  outer  end  of  H  is  a  spring  S,  one  end  of 
which  is  connected  to  H  and  the  other  to  the  movable 
arm,  G.  The  rod,  r,  carrying  the  collar,  t,  is  reciprocated 
by  an  eccentric  on  the  engine,  and,  on  moving  to  the  left, 
T  strikes  G ;  but  the  swing  of  the  eccentric  on  the  return 
stroke  causes  the  collar  T  to  pass  G  without  touching  it. 
When  collar,  t,  strikes  G  it  first  brings  the  points  x  and  y 
in  contact,  and  further  movement  of  G  winds  the  spring. 
The  tension  of  the  spring  forces  x  hard  against  y,  insuring 
good  contact.  A  still  further  movement  of  G  causes  it  to 
slip  off  the  collar,  t,  when  it  flies  back  against  the  pin, 
p,  opening  the  circuit  with  a  jerk,  and  making  a  spark 
between  x  and  y.  While  the  mechanism  shown  is  not 
employed  with  every  electric  igniter,  the  same  principles 
are  involved  in  practically  all  of  those  employed  upon 
marine  engines. 

In  the  care  of  an  igniter  of  the  make-and-break  variety, 
the  following  precautions  should  be  observed :  The  spark 
coil  should  be  kept  dry  at  all  times.  It  is  a  good  idea 
to  keep  the  coil  on  a  shelf  near  the  top  of  the  cabin,  or, 
if  the  boat  is  an  open  one,  to  put  it  near  the  top  of  the 


92 

locker,  and  to  enclose  it  in  a  perfectly  water-tight  box. 
A  source  of  electrical  energy,  giving  at  least  four  volts, 
should  be  employed,  and  the  generator  or  battery  should 
be  capable  of  giving  ample  current.  Electric  cells  of  the 
sal-ammoniac  type,  such  as  ordinarily  used  for  electric 
bells,  and  known  as  open  circuit  cells,  are  not  suitable 
for  the  purpose.  Cells  that  will  keep  up  a  steady  cur- 
rent and  not  run  down  when  connected  in  a  circuit  of  low 
resistance  are  the  best  for  this  purpose.  Of  the  primary 
cells,  the  caustic  soda  type  is  the  best.  As  the  pressure 
given  by  these  cells  is  low,  being  less  than  one  volt  for 
each  cell,  four  or  five  cells  should  be  used  for  the  battery. 
When  a  source  of  electric  current  for  charging  them  is 
located  at  a  convenient  point  a  storage  battery  of  two 
cells,  having  a  normal  discharge  rate  of  three  or  four 
amperes,  would  be  found  a  very  good  source  of  energy. 
There  is  no  mussing  with  chemicals  when  they  are  to  be 
re-charged,  and  the  expense  of  re-charging  is  only  a 
matter  of  a  few  cents.  The  first  cost  is  also  but  little  if 
any  more  than  that  of  a  caustic  soda  battery.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  test  the  igniter  always  before  starting  on  a 
trip,  to  see  if  the  spark  is  made  at  the  proper  time  of  the 
stroke.  This  should  be  when  the  engine  is  compressing, 


93 

and  the  proper  distance  of  the  ignition  point  from  the  end 
of  the  stroke  should  be  determined  from  the  makers  of 
the  engine,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  igniter 
set  for  this  sparking-  point. 

When  the  ignition  takes  place  before  the  end  of  the 
stroke,  it  is  said  to  have  lead.  The  higher  the  speed  of  the 
engine  and  the  longer  its  stroke  the  greater  will  be  the 
distance  of  the  piston  from  the  end  of  its  stroke  at  the 
time  when  the  ignition  takes  place ;  /.  c.,  the  greater  will  be 
the  lead.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  make  a  mark  on  the  fly-wheel 
rim  that  cannot  be  obliterated,  and  also  to  make  a  similar 
mark  somewhere  on  the  engine.  Then  have  these  marks 
placed  in  such  a  position  that  when  they  are  opposite  one 
another  the  piston  will  be  at  the  proper  distance  from  the 
end  of  its  stroke  for  ignition  to  take  place.  After  these 
marks  are  once  properly  located,  they  will  be  found  very 
convenient  to  use  when  setting  the  igniter.  Presuming 
that  the  marks  have  been  made,  it  is  now  necessary  only 
to  make  sure  that  the  arm,  G,  Fig.  7,  slips  off  the  collar, 
T,  just  as  these  marks  coincide.  It  is  advisable  to  oc- 
casionally test  the  spring,  S,  by  swinging  the  arm,  G,  with 
the  finger  in  order  to  determine  if  it  has  a  sufficient 
degree  of  stiffness.  The  plug,  A,  should  be  removed  once 


w 


lu 


95 

in  a  while  to  see  if  points  x  and y  are  not  worn  out,  and 
also  to  clean  of  soot  those  portions  of  the  igniter  which 
project  into  the  cylinder. 

Jump-spark  ignition  is  but  very  little  used  on  marine 
engines  at  the  present  time,  and  only  the  diagram  of  con- 
nections will  be  shown  here.  The  system  of  wiring  for  a 
jump-spark  igniter  is  shown  in  Fig.  8.  The  switch,  S, 
upon  the  valve  shaft  of  the  engine  closes  the  circuit  of  the 
battery,  B,  through  the  primary  winding  of  the  induction 
coil,  R.  The  current  is  compelled  to  pass  through  a  mag- 
netic vibrator,  M,  which  rapidly  opens  and  closes  the  cir- 
cuit during  the  time  that  the  switch,  5,  is  closed.  This 
pulsating  current  induces  a  pressure  in  the  secondary 
winding,  as  explained  in  connection  with  Fig.  6,  and  the 
high  pressure  of  the  secondary  causes  a  spark  to  jump 
between  the  terminals  of  the  plug  at  P,  inside  of  the  gas 
engine  cylinder.  There  are  two  methods  of  connecting 
the  secondary  circuit.  In  one  of  these  both  sides  of  the 
circuit  are  insulated,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  In  the  other, 
only  one  of  the  secondary  terminals  is  insulated,  and  the 
other  is  grounded  on  the  engine. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

WEIGHT  IN  GAS  ENGINES. 

'TpHE  author  has  frequently  been  asked  the  question, 
"  Why  are  gas  engines  so  heavy  ?  "  The  purpose  of 
the  present  chapter  is  not  only  to  answer  this  question, 
but  to  point  out  ways  and  means  to  the  future  designer  for 
obtaining  the  lighest  practical  engine  within  keeping  with 
strength  and  efficiency.  The  author  might  as  well  mention 
that  the  observations  here  made  in  regard  to  reducing 
weight  to  the  lowest  point  consistent  with  strength  are 
many  of  them  the  outcome  of  observations  made  while  in 
the  service  of  Mr.  Hiram  S.  Maxim  in  England  on  his 
experiments  in  flying  machines.  While  to  the  non-scien- 
tific the  mention  of  flying  machines  may  be  productive  of 
smiles,  to  the  engineer  of  *to-day  it  means  but  a  fascinating 
problem  all  the  more  attractive  because  of  the  apparently 
unsurmountable  difficulties. 

In  return  to  earth,  or  rather  to  the  gas  engine,  it  may 
be  said  that  the  principal  reason  for  the  great  weight  of 
gas  engines  as  compared  with  steam  engines  is  due  in  the 
main  to  the  fact  that  the  impulses  in  the  steam  engine  cyl- 


98 

inder  occur  at  more  frequent  intervals  during  the  same 
number  of  revolutions  than  in  the  gas  engine.  As  com- 
pared to  the  four-cycle  gas  engine  the  steam  engine  gives 
four  impulses  to  one  of  the  gas  engine.  In  the  two-cycle 
engine  the  ratio  is  two  to  one.  The  engine  must  be 
designed  to  withstand  a  greater  pressure  for  the  same 
horse-power,  and  again  the  maximum  pressure  in  the  gas 
engine  is  considerably  greater  than  in  the  steam  engine 
operating  under  the  same  average  pressure,  and  the  ratio 
of  strength  must  be  made  greater  than  four  to  one  or  two 
to  one,  as  the  case  may  be.  A  further  allowance  of  strength 
for  the  shock  produced  at  the  moment  of  explosion  must  be 
made,  although  this  is  not  so  great  as  some  designers  have 
been  led  to  think. 

In  spite  of  this  increased  weight  the  fact  that  the  gas 
engine  is»its  own  pressure  generator,  doing  away  with  all 
devices  analogous  to  the  steam  boiler,  makes  it  more  than 
the  equal  of  the  steam  engine  when  comparing  the  weights 
necessary  for  the  same  power.  Notwithstanding  »the  ad- 
vantage in  weight  possessed  by  the  gas  engine  in  its 
present  form,  there  is  still  much  room  for  improvement,  as 
has  already  been  shown  to  a  certain  extent  in  engines  de- 
signed for  driving  automobiles. 

In  the  present  competition  between  the  owners  of  craft 


99 

driven  by  gasoline  engines  comes  the  demand  for  speed, 
and  hand  in  hand  with  this  demand  goes  another,  *.  <?.,  the 
call  for  engines  possessing  the  greatest  amount  of  power 
with  the  smallest  amount  of  weight.  Mr.  Maxim's  rule, 
which  was  so  successfully  followed  in  the  design  of  his 
flying  machine,  and  which  was  indelibly  impressed  upon 
the  author,  is  as  follows: 

"  Take  off  every  superfluous  ounce  in  all  parts  of  the 
device."  Cut  down  the  weight  at  every  point,  not  only  by 
reducing  the  part  to  the  smallest  section  compatible  with 
strength,  but  use  the  material  which  is  the  strongest,  weight 
for  weight. 

If  it  is  desired  to  design  an  engine  for  a  racing  yacht 
the  designer  should  keep  the  following  points  in  mind  at 
all  times:  An  engine  will  give  double  the  horse-power  at 
double  the  speed,  provided  the  same  average  pressure  in  the 
cylinder  is  obtained  in  each  case.  With  precisely  the 
same  amount  of  weight  in  the  engine,  the  power  is  doubled. 
Actually,  however,  the  increase  in  speed  of  the  engine  per- 
mits of  a  reduction  of  the  weight  of  the  flywheel,  which 
comprises  a  considerable  fraction  of  the  total  weight. 
Doubling  the  speed  of  the  engine  permits  of  the  use  of  a 
flywheel  one-fourth  the  weight  required  at  the  slower 
speed.  Thus  a  three-horse-power  engine  running  at  350 


revolutions  per  minute  would  require  for  a  single  cylinder 
engine  of  the  four-cycle  type  a  flywheel  weighing  about 
two  hundred  pounds.  Double  the  speed  of  the  engine, 
making  it  run  at  700  revolutions  per  minute,  and  it  be- 
comes a  six-horse-power,  while  the  necessary  flywheel  will 
weigh  but  fifty  pounds. 

Taking  up  the  first  catalogue  I  can  lay  my  hands  on,  I 
find  the  weight  of  a  three-horse-power  engine  given  as  570 
pounds,  or  190  pounds  per  horse  power.  Following  out 
the  suggestions  in  the  last  paragraph,  the  engine  becomes 
a  six-horse-power,  weighing  420  pounds,  or  70  pounds  to 
the  horse  power.  Such  a  radical  change  would  make 
almost  any  designer  hesitate,  and  he  would  probably  be 
horrified  at  the  mere  suggestion.  The  author  would  hardly 
care  to  make  such  a  change  himself  without  careful  exper- 
imenting before  placing  the  engine  in  a  boat.  He  has, 
however,  given  what  might  be  considered  an  exaggerated 
example  in  order  to  make  the  point  the  more  apparent. 

Still  another  means  of  reducing  the  ratio  of  weight  to 
horse  power  is  to  increase  the  number  of  cylinders  working 
on  one  crank  shaft.  It  is  practicable  to  run  engines  with 
multiple  cylinders  at  higher  speeds,  for  two  reasons.  In 
the  first  place,  the  cylinders  are  smaller,  and  this  -in  itself 
permits  the  use  of  higher  speeds.  Again,  the  more  perfect 


101 

balancing  that  may  be  obtained  in  a  multiple-cylinder 
engine  permits  a  higher  speed  to  be  used  than  for  a  single- 
cylinder  engine  with  the  same  size  cylinder  as  used  for 
those  in  the  multiple  engine.  Here  again  comes  an  oppor- 
tunity for  a  reduction  in  the  weight  of  the  flywheel  The 
greater  frequency  of  the  impulses  reduces  the  amount  of 
inertia  that  is  necessary  to  store  in  the  flywheel. 

Taking  the  solution  of  a  sample  case,  suppose  the 
single-cylinder  engine  considered  previously  was  coupled 
on  the  same  crank  shaft  with  another  engine  of  the  same 
size.  The  engine,  if  running  at  the  same  speed  (350  r.  p.  m.), 
would  now  develop  six  horse  power.  As  the  engine  now 
has  two  impulses  where  the  single-cylinder  engine  had  one, 
the  flywheel  is  required  to  store  energy  for  a  period  only 
one-half  as  long  as  for  the  single-cylinder  engine.  There- 
fore, instead  of  a  2oo-pound  flywheel,  one  weighing  100 
pounds  would  be  sufficient  The  engine  is,  however,  a 
six-horse-power,  and  if  it  were  a  .single-cylinder  six-horse- 
power engine  running  at  350  revolutions  per  minute  it 
would  require  a  4oo-pound  flywheel.  Thus  it  will  be  seen 
that  by  either  doubling  the  speed  of  the  engineer  doubling 
the  number  of  cylinders  the  weight  of  the  flywheel  required 
is  materially  reduced.  The  reduction  in  total  weight  of 
the  engine  is,  however,  considerably  greater  when  the 


speed  is  doubled  than  when  the  number  of  cylinders  is 
doubled.  Turning  again  to  the  catalogue,  I  find  the  weight 
of  a  two-cylinder  six-horse-power  engine  running  at  practi- 
cally the  same  speed  as  the  three-horse-power  to  be  900 
pounds.  A  single-cylinder  engine  of  the  same  power 
would  weigh  approximately  twice  what  the  three-horse- 
power weighs,  or  1,140  pounds,  and  the  gain  by  multiplying 
cylinders  is,  therefore,  240  pounds. 

The  gain  in  multiplying  cylinders  is  not  all  in  the  fly- 
wheel. Much  of  it  is  in  the  framework  of  the  engine,  and 
in  such  parts  as  may  be  utilized  for  both  cylinders  without 
increasing  their  size.  The  crank-shaft,  for  instance,  need 
not  be  larger  in  diameter  for  a  two-cylinder  six-horse- 
power engine  than  for  a  single-cylinder  three-horse- 
power. 

Both  the  crank-shaft  and  the  connecting  rod  of  an 
engine  may  be  decreased  in  weight  by  making  them  tubular, 
*and  the  use  of  steel  in  the  place  of  wrought  iron  will 
allow  of  a  smaller  cross  section  being  employed.  Cast- 
steel  «for  the  frame  of  the  engine,  instead  of  cast  iron, 
will  permit  of  reducing  the  weight  materially,  and  it  will 
answer  as  well  as,  if  not  better  than,  cast  iron.  Cast  iron 
should  be  used  for  both  the  cylinders  and  the  piston  of 
the  engine  unless  a  particularly  close-grained  steel  casting 


103 

can  be  obtained.  Cast  steel  has  been  tried  for  this  purpose, 
but  as  far  as  the  author  is  aware  it  has  invariably  fallen 
short  of  the  requirements.  This  has  been  presumably 
because  an  inferior  grade  of  casting  was  employed  in 
those  instances  which  came  under  the  author's  observation.- 
Another  objection  to  steel  is  that  it  is  more  liable  than 
cast  iron  to  be  scored  by  the  hot  gases  As  an  example  of 
what  may  be  done  in  the  reduction  of  weight  in  cylinder 
walls,  the  author  would  state  that  the  cylinder  walls  of 
Mr.  Maxim's  flying-machine  engines  were  only  three-sixty- 
fourths  of  an  inch  thick.  The  diameters  of  these  cylinders 
were  five  and  eight  inches  respectively  for  the  high  and 
the  low-pressure  sides.  The  material  was  gun-lock  steel, 
the  cylinders  being  bored  and  turned  from  a  solid  ingot. 
The  engines  were  operated  with  a  steam  pressure  of  from 
300  to  350  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  weight  of  the  cylinder  could  be  reduced  by  the 
use  of  steel,  making  the  walls  correspondingly  thinner  and 
also  by  using  a  thin  brass  tube  for  the  outer  wall  of  the 
jacket.  This  is  usually  cast  with  the  cylinder,  but  it  is 
quite  practical  to  make  the  jacket  wall  of  a  thin  sheet  of 
brass  or  wrought  iron,  as  the  water  pressure  on  a  marine 
engine  is  at  no  time  very  great.  The  wall  of  the  cylinder 
head  jacket  could  also  be  made  in  the  same  manner. 


IO4 

The  reader  is  warned  against  the  use  of  aluminum  in 
any  part  of  the  engine  where  strength  is  desired.  In  order 
to  obtain  an  equal  amount  of  strength,  a  weight- of  the  metal 
equal  toihat  of  a  piece  of  steel  that  would  answer  the  same 
purpose  must  be  employed.  For  such  parts  as  are  not  ex- 
posed to  heat,  or  liable  to  be  underpressure  at  anytime,  an 
aluminum  casting  would  be  found  a  convenience,  perhaps. 
In  the  design  of  an  engine  that  would  not  justify  the 
extra  cost  of  steel  castings,  much  unnecessary  weight 
may  be  saved  by  the  use  of  brackets  in  locations  where 
there  is  great  strain  to  resist,  instead  of  making  a  heavy 
casting  and  omitting  the  brackets.  These  will  add  to  the 
cost  of  the  patterns,  but  there  the  expense  ceases,  and 
should  there  be  a  number  of  engines  to  be  built  from  the 
same  design,  the  extra  cost  for  the  pattern  would  soon  be 
overbalanced  by  the  saving  in  iron.  Much  iron  could  also 
be  saved  by  an  intelligent  design  of  the  engine  base.  In 
small  engines  particularly,  making  a  set  of  lugs  on  the  side 
of  the  crankcase  or  frame  would  save  much  of  the  iron 
that  is  so  often  seen  put  into  a  heavy  foot  at  the  extreme 
limit  of  the  frame.  Long  brackets  on  the  sides  of  the  cyl- 
inder must  be  made  heavy  in  proportion  to  their  length,  and 
are  best  avoided  wherever  it  is  practicable  to  do  so. 

Many  engines  on  the  market  to-day — most  of  them  being 


the  product  of  amateur  designers — are  loaded  down  with 
several  auxiliary  shafts,  appurtenances  of  various  kinds, 
and  quite  often  with  a  multitude  of  piping  that  is  quite 
uncalled  for.  The  author  has  in  mind  a  design  of  this 
kind  which  was  sent  to  him  for  criticism  and  suggestions. 
The  engine  was  a  two-cycle,  but  from  one  point  of  view 
the  engine  was  almost  hidden  with  pipes.  On  another 
engine  which  he  made  a  trip  down  into  New  Jersey  to  see 
was  supplied  with  two  camshafts,  one  on  each  side  of  the  en- 
gine. Needless  to  say,  the  engine  never  appeared  on  the 
market.  And  now  that  I  think  of  it,  this  engine  was  sup- 
plied with  two  mufflers  as  well,  one  for  eacft  cylinder. 
Another  case  of  unnecessary  weight  was  that  of  a  two-cycle 
engine  with  an  auxiliary  cylinder  for  pumping  air.  This  cyl- 
inder was  supplied  with  a  separate  piston,  driven  by  a  second 
connecting  rod.  Strangest  of  all,  the  two  last  engines 
were  designed  for  automobiles.  Both  lie  in  the  scrap  heap 
to-day.  In  fact,  the  author  could  describe  many  more 
such  engines,  a  number  of  them  being  among  the  old  iron. 
Returning  to  the  flywheel,  it  «may  be  pointed  out  that 
the  energy-storing  power  of  a  marine  flywheel  is  much 
less,  weight  for  weight,  than  the  wheels  used  on  stationary 
engines.  This  is  because  it  is  necessary  to  put  the  center 
of  the  crankshaft  as  low  in  the  boat  as  is  practicable,  and 


io6 

increasing  the  diameter  lessens  the  weight  in  proportion  to 
the  square  of  the  diameter.  It  is  unusual,  however,  to  find 
a  marine  flywheel  larger  in  diameter  than  three  times  the 
stroke  of  the  engine.  Quite  often  they  are  less  than  this. 
Widening  out  the  rim  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  axis  of 
the  crankshaft  will  help  matters  a  little,  but  there  is  a 
limit  to  this.  The  designer,  when  considering  the  reduc- 
tion in  flywheel  weights  permissible  with  increase  of  speed, 
should  consider  the  engine  as  occasionally  running  at  a 
reduced  speed,  and  make  some  allowance  on  that  score. 
If  the  boat  is  to  be  used  almost  entirely  for  a  racer 
the  limit  may  be  given  to  the  weight.  But  if  it  is  also  to 
be  run  at  a  reduced  speed  much  of  the  time,  he  should 
design  the  flywheel  to  suit  the  average  conditions. 

Recent  developments  in  gas  enginery  have  again 
brought  forward  the  double-acting  gas  engine  taking  in 
impulse  at  either  side  of  the  piston,  as  does  the  steam 
engine.  This  has  been  accomplished  with  promises  of 
good  results  by  making  the  piston  rod  hollow  and  forcing 
a  stream  of  water  through  it.  With  a  double-acting  four- 
cycle engine  an  impulse  is  obtained  once  in  each  revolu- 
tion. This  is  also  accomplished  in  the  two-cycle  engine, 
which,  while  single  acting,  receives  an  impulse  at  each 
revolution.  For  some  unaccountable  reason  these  engines 


do  not  as  a  rule  give  more  than  fifty  per  cent,  greater 
power  than  a  four-cycle  engine  of  the  same  dimensions, 
running  at  the  same  speed.  They  are  usually  lighter,  how- 
ever, than  the  four  cycle  engine  of  the  same  power,  and 
their  simplicity  makes  them  find  favor  among  a  great  many 
gas-engine  users.  If  well  designed,  they  will  give  good 
service,  and  are  practically  as  reliable  as  a  four-cycle.  A 
poorly-designed  or  poorly-constructed  two-cycle  engine  is 
much  more  likely  to  be  cranky  than  a  four-cycle  that  has 
been  poorly  built  or  designed. 

Another  opportunity  for  decreasing  the  ratio  of  the 
weight  to  the  power  obtained  is  to  increase  the  compression 
before  ignition.  There  is  a  limit  to  the  compression  that 
may  be  used  in  a  gasoline  engine  without  giving  trouble. 
Gasoline  ignites  at  a  lower  temperature  than  many  of  the 
fixed  gases,  and  about  85  to  90  pounds  is  the  practical  limit. 
Ordinarily,  gasoline  engines  are  designed  to  compress  to 
pressures  of  from  45  to  60  pounds.  Increasing  the  com- 
pression from  45  to  85  pounds  means  a  gain  in  power  of 
nearly  40  per  cent  ,and  by  increasing  the  compression  from 
60  pounds  to  85  pounds  the  power  of  the  engine  is  aug- 
mented over  20  per  cent.  Increase  in  compression  neces- 
sitates more  careful  attention  on  the  part  of  the  designer  to 
details,  in  order  to  avoid  premature  ignition.  Many  of 


io8 

them  do  not  know  how  to  design  an  engine  which  will  not 
ignite  prematurely  at  these  high  compressions,  and  they 
keep  to  the  low  compressions.  The  use  of  high  compres- 
sions means  not  only  an  increase  of  power  for  an  engine  of 
a  certain  size,  but  it  means  an  increase  in  the  efficiency  of 
the  engine  and  a  reduction  of  the  fuel  consumption  per 
horse  power. 

The  purchaser  of  gasoline  engines  for  marine  uses  may 
wonder  in  what  respect  the  foregoing  discussion  concerns 
him.  The  author  trusts  he  will  find  it  of  value  in  the  se- 
lection of  an  engine  to  suit  his  purpose.  It  will  be  espe- 
cially valuable  if  he  desires  to  buy  an  engine  for  racing 
purposes.  Again,  the  amount  of  cast-iron  in  an  engine  has 
some  effect  on  its  price.  The  discussion  will  show  many 
of  the  requisites  for  reducing  weight,  and  will,  the  writer 
trusts,  enable  the  buyer  to  know  where  to  look  for  unneces- 
sary metal. 

The  designer,  especially  if  he  be  experienced  in  gas 
engines,  would  do  well  to  bear  in  mind  the  points  brought 
out  when  designing  gas  engines.  Don't  be  afraid  to  speed 
the  engine  up  to  a  point  a  little  above  what  other  engines 
have  run  at.  In  order  to  do  so  with  some  show  of  suc- 
cess it  is  necessary  to  be  careful  about  the  port  openings, 
and  to  make  them  ample  for  the  higher  speed.  While  it 


109 

may  not  always  be  desirable  to  build  a  racing  engine, 
there  is  ample  room  for  reduction  in  weight  on  many  of 
the  marine  engines  in  use  to  day,  a  large  number  of  them 
weighing  ten  to  twenty  per  cent,  more  than  is  really 
necessary. 


YACHTSMAN'S    LIBRARY 


fiUDDEft  NAVTOTYPES 


NEXT   to   books,    the   most   companionable    of  man's  inanimate 
friends  are  pictures;  but  in  order  to  give  continuous  pleasure 
they  must  harmonize  with  his  sympathies  and  tastes.     To  be- 
come a  necessary  part  of  his  surroundings  they  must  represent 
something  that  he  admires  or  likes.    The  horseman  takes  delight 
in  seeing   pictures   of  his  favorite   animal,  to  the   sportsman 
sketches   of  game   appeal,    and  the   yachtsman,  in  order  to  be  happily 
environed,    should  have  hanging  on  his  wall  spirited  illustrations  of  his 
favorite  craft.     A  house  without  pictures  is  a  barn;  a  room  without  them 
a  stall.     Aside  from  their  constant  cheering  presence  they  always  furnish 
a  happy  subject  for  conversation,  and  many  a  pleasant  memory  is  refresh- 
ened by  a  glance  at  a  photograph  of  a  flying  schooner  or  drifting  sloop, 
and  every  sight  of  wave  and  sail  recalls  our  affection  for  the  sea  and  the 
winded  rovers,  that  throughout  the  kindly  summer  haunt  its  broad  and 
ever  changing  surface. 


YACHTSMAN'S    LIBRARY 


THE  RUDDER  NAUTOTYPES 

LIST    OF    SUBJECTS 

YACHTSMAN'S    SERIES 

Getting  Under  Wa> .     Deck  scene.  Amorita 

The     Finish.    An  interesting  view  from  the  deck  of  a  committee  steamer 

Reaching-    for    the     Finish.     English  yawl  Sabyrita 

Start    of   the    Half-Raters 

Schooner    Constellation.    Storm  rig 

Sloop     Cartoon.     Wind  abeam 

Will  If    a»     'Wing.    Sloop  Cartoon 

Oneness.     Champion  i8-footer,  1898 

Shark.     HerreshofF  51  -footer 

Yawl    \Vu\veiio«- 

Hatldbaggers.    Racing  on  Lake  Geneva 

Knockabout    Amananta.    Champion  ot  Buzzards  B«y 

8.    Y.    Freelance 

S.    Y.    Klreba 

Reflection.     The  fleet  at  White  Bear  Lake 

RaceabOUtS     Off    L,archniont.     Snapper,  Raider,  Coll«M 

8.    Y.    Xiatcara 

Launch    of    Escape.    A  novel  launching 

Youth   and   Old  Age.     Romonaa..a  Amorita 

Snow'     Cloud.     Ice  Boat  Champion 

Sloop    Constitution.    Starboard  side 

Rocking-Cbair    Fleet.    With  verses 

Start    of   the    jo-footers.    Newport  class 

Shamrock    II.    Port  side 

Independence.    From  the  lee  bow 

The    Start.     Columbia  and  Shamrock  1 

OLD    SALT    SERIES 

Squall    off  Sandy  Hook          Maii-o'-\Var       School     Ship 
Spinning  a  Twister                           St.  Marys 
After    the    Gale                             Full-Rigged    Ship 
Maii-o'-\Var  Constitution                llenj.    F.    Packard 
Shipping   a   Beam   Sea 

CUP-DEFENDER    SERIES 

Sloop    Columbia  Sloop    mischief 

Defender  Schooner    Madeleine 

Vigilant  Sappho 

Volunteer  Columbia 

Mayflower  Magic 

Puritan  *^_  America 

A  ny  of  the  above  subjects  25  CENTS  EA  CH  by  express  prepaid,  securely  packed 
to  avoid  breaking, 

Address   THE  RUDDER  PUB.   CO.,  9  Murray  St.,  JV.    Y. 


YACHTSMAN'S  LIBRARY 


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How  to  Build  a 
Motor  Launch 

By  C.  D.  Mower 
Designing  Editor  of  THK  RUDDER 

A  simple  and  practical  work  in  every  de- 
tail, showing  how  to  construct  a  launch  hull 
suitable  for  use  with  any  description  of  motor. 

Each  step  of  the  work  is  clearly  and  thoroughly  ex- 
plained, both  by  text  and  drawings,  so  that  a  man  who  has 
never  even  seen  a  boat  built  will  have  no  difficulty  in 
understanding  the  process. 


The  author,  a  self-taught  boat  builder,  thoroughly 
comprehends  what  a  novice  does  not  know,  and  is,  there- 
fore, able  to  point  out  the  hard  places,  and  to  show  the 
amateur  builder  how  to  get  over  or  around  them. 

In  the  after  part  of  the  book  are  given  the  designs  of 
several  launches,  from  18  to  50  feet  in  length. 

The  whole  is  heavily  illustrated,  and  is  the  most 
complete  treatise  on  launch  building  yet  published. 

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SIMPLEST,  safest  and  fastest  boat  that  can  be  built.    The  working  plans  are  such  tha' 
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TECHNICAL  books  are  tools.     No  man  can  ex- 
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can  a  man  expect  to  excel  in  a  sport  unless 
he  has  at  hand  ready  for  reference  a  good 
collection  of  books  relating  to  its  theory  and 
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.its  kindred  sports.     The  yachtsman  will  find  here  those 
books  which  are  invaluable  as  guides  to  a  higher  know- 
ledge of  yachting,  and  which  no  yachtsman's  library  is 
complete  without.     Any  book  not  here  listed,  if  in  print, 
we  will  obtain,  no  matter  in  what  language  or  land  it  is 
printed. 

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i 

On  Yachts 

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and  Yacht 

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Handling... 

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H»wTo  BUILD  A  KNOCKABOUT 

The  most  wholesome  type  of  boat  for  all-around  cruising  and  racing. 
Stanch,  ta^t  and  powerful.  Easily  handled  by  one  man.  Full  work- 
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tions for  building.  Now  in  press,  ready  January  ist,  1901. 


Uniform  in  style  with  How  to  Build  a  Skipjack 


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What 
Light 


is 


That? 


READ    YOUR   ANSWER    IN 


Stebbins'    Coast    Pilot, 

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OVER  400    ILLUSTRATIONS:      FROM   EASTPORT  TO    RIO    GRANDE. 

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HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SKIPJACK 

Complete  plans  and  directions  for  building  a  ig-ft.  sloop,  the  material 
for  which  will  cost  less  than  $100  ;  and  pictures  of  numerous  boats  that 
have  been  built  in  all  parts  of  the  world  from  these  plans.  Bound  in 
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HOW    TO    BUILD 
A  RACING  SLOOP 

THE  WIDE-WORLD  WINNING  SWALLOW 


DESIGNED    BY    C.    D.    MOWER 


'OST  successful  small  racing  machine  ever  de- 
signed. Been  built  in  every  clime;  has 
won  on  every  sea.  A  prize-winner  in  Am- 
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Easy  to  build  and  easy  to  win  with.  Has  been  a 
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are  followed.  Materials  cost  about  $100;  sometimes 
less.  Book  contains  full  set  of  plans  and  story  of  what 
Swallows  have  done.  Cannot  be  beaten  for  the  price; 
cannot  be  beaten  for  any  price. 


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Yacht  Etiquette 

WHAT   TO    DO    AND    HOW    TO    DO    IT 


A   NEW  BOOK 

By  CAPTAIN  HOWARD   PATTERSON 


IT  CONTAINS 

Exhaustive  chapters  on  yacht  discipline,  ceremonies  and  courtesies  for 
any  and  all  circumstances. 

A  full  treatise  on  the    duties  and    responsibilities   of    yacht   officers, 
from  the  captain  down. 

Observances  in   detail   for  the   reception   of    presidents  of    republics, 

royalty,  nobility,  governors,  members  of  the  cabinet,  diplomatic 

corps,  army  and  navy  officials,  and  other  distinguished 

visitors  ;  colors  in  general ;  salutes  ;    harbor 

and  sea   routine,    etc.,     etc. 

Red  marginal  notes  afford  means  of  immediate  reference  to  any  subject 
requiring  to  be  dealt  with  on  the  spur  of  the  moment. 

Captains  should  not  only  provide  for  themselves,  but  should  furnish  one 
of  these  books  to  each  and  every  officer  on  board  of  their  yachts, 
so   that   sailing   masters,    mates,    engineers,   quarter- 
masters, etc.,  may  familiarize  themselves  with 
those  sections  which  deal  with  matters 
in  their  respective  departments. 

A  book  that  is  as  necessary  and  as  applicable  in  parts  for  the  small 
yacht  as  for  the  palatial  pleasure  craft. 

Beautifully  printed  and  bound,  and  of  convenient  size  for  the  pocket. 


$1 


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-*  And  How  to  Handle  Them*- 
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CAPTAIN    HOWARD    PATTERSON  1 

4  A  Comprehensive  Treatise  on  Working 
%  and  Racing  Sails;  How  They  are  Made; 
The  Running  Rigging  Belongingto  Them; 
The  Manner  in  Which  They  are  Confined 
to  their  Respective  Spars,  Stays,  etc.  ;  The  | 
Way  They  are  Bent  and  Unbent,  etc.  | 

A    BOOK   AS   APPLICABLE   FOR   THE   SMALL 


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ELEMENTS  OF 
NAVIGATION 


BY  W.  J.  HENDERSON. 


*  *  *  *  This  little  book,  a  very  clever  abridgement 
and  compilation  of  the  heavier  works  of  several  authorities, 
is  one  that  has  had  quite  an  extensive  sale,  and  has  met. 
with  universal  approval.  It  is  very  clearly  and  very  care- 
fully written,  and  the  explanations  of  the  problems  are  so 
lucid  that  no  man  should  be  forgiven  who  fails  to  under- 
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ed for  beginners,  but  to  my  mind  this  is  the  best  of  the  lot, 
and  I  recommend  it  to  those  who  are  anxious  to  study 
navigation. — EDITOR  OF  THE  RUDDER. 


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Self  Instruction 

In    "the    Practice    an  d    theory  of 


"Diagrams,   Ejeerctses,    Gables.    Etc. 
In  2  tJols..  cloth.  8*)o.    £7  net 


By  the  EARL  o/  DUNRAVEN,  Extra  Master 

A  treatise  intended  for  men  who  have  never  been  trained 
in  mathematics  and  astronomy,  yet  are  intelligent  and 
possess  a  certain  amount  of  elementary  or  general 
education.  Practical,  Simple,  and  Clear. 
The  first  volume  covers  the  necessary  Arithmetic, 
Logarithms,  the  Sailings,  a  Day's  Work,  the  use  of  the 
Compass,  some  chart  work,  and  the  simpler  nautical 
astronomical  problems. 

The  second  volume  treats  of  other  nautical  astronom- 
ical problems  and  magnetism  ;  gives  further  informa- 
tion as  to  charts,  and  shows  how  working  formulas  are 
deduced;  and  it  contains  numerous  exercises,  with  the 
necessary  data  lor  their  solution  from  the  Nautical 
Almanac  of  1898,  etc. 

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THE    STORY    OF    THE 


Americas 
Cup 

By  CHAS.    P.     TOWER 


How  it  was  won  at  Cowes  in  1851  and  how 
it  has  been  successfully  defended  for  half  a 
century  by  the  New  York  Yacht  Club 


A       DAINTY  little  book,  pocket  size,  of 
/%          about  128  pages,  in  which  the  entire 
/  %         history  of  racing  for  the  America's 
/      %       Cup  is  told  in  brief  yet  comprehen- 
"^      sive  style,  in  ordinary  language.    It 
is  essentially  a  book  for  the  multi- 
tude of  people  who  have  little  time  to  give  to 
yachting  matters,  but  who  share  in  the  uni- 
versal interest  aroused  by  an  international  race. 
It  is  as  entertaining  and  easy  to  read  as  a  story 
book  ;  and  as  faithfully  correct  as  to  facts  and 
figures  as  a  gazetteer.     The  author  is  well 
known  among  yachting  circles  as  an  authority 
on  yachting  matters. 


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TWELVE     NAUTOTYPES 

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AMERICA    TO    COLUMBIA 


A  TECHNICALLY  correct  and  complete  set  of  pic- 
tures of  the  five  schooners  and  eight  sloops  that 
have  defended  the  America  Cup  from  1851  to 
1901.  The  first  set  of  CORRECT  pictures  that  have  ever 
been  issued.  The  earlier  yachts  are  drawings  reproduced 
from  the  original  sail  plans ;  the  later  yachts  are  from  the 
most  characteristic  photographs  obtainable.  This  set  has 
not  been  selected  so  much  for  its  picturesque  representa- 
tion as  for  its  technical  fidelity  and  historical  interest  value. 

The  pictures  are  printed  on  heavy- coated  paper  in 
Columbian  Brown,  a  beautiful  soft  vaporous  color  that 
brings  out  in  a  marvelously  perfect  manner  the  details  of 
rig  and  the  shadow  and  light  effects  of  the  sails. 

The  pictures  are  excellently  proportioned  for  framing, 
and  will  make  an  attractive  set  for  the  library  of  any  home, 
or  for  cafes,  reading  rooms,  bars,  etc. 

The  set  of  thirteen  nautotypes  are  furnished  bound  up 
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The  Yachtsman's  Kedgc  Anchor, 

OR. 

Every    Man  His  Own  Boatswain. 


The  Second  Book  in  the  Series  by 

CAPTAIN    HOWARD     PATTERSON, 

Principal  of  the  New  York  Nautical  College. 

Formerly  Commander   of  the    New    York   School    Ship    "St.   Mary's," 
Master  of  Various  Sail  and  Steam  Yachts. 


A  Full  Treatise  on    Marlinspike  Sea- 

The 

manship,  The  Rudiments  and  Theory 
Yachtsman's  of  The  Rudder,  Anchor,  Lead  and 
Kedge  Anchor  Line,  etc. ;  Directions  for  Laying  Up 

.   .  and    Fitting    Out    a  Yacht,   Valuable 

Conjatn-s  : 

Recipes,  etc.     .'. 


PROFUSELY    ILLUSTRATED. 

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of 
Sea  an&  Sail 


BY  THOMAS  FLEMING  DAY 


A  selection  of  forty -two  ol 
Mr.  Day's  Sea  Poems,  some 
ol  which  have  never  hereto- 
fore been  published,  being 
printed  on  heavy  paper  and 
bound  in  Green  Buckram 
with  gilt  ornaments,  and 
making  it  a  handsome  vol- 
ume of  128  pages,  for  which 
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the  price  of  $1.50. 


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SONGS  of  SEA  and  SAIL 
and  THE  RUDDER 
for  ONE  YEAR 


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Ai' 


